Long before colonialism brought slavery to the Caribbean, the native islanders saw hurricanes and storms as part of the normal cycle of life.
The Taino of the Greater Antilles and the Kalinago, or Caribs, of the Lesser Antilles developed systems that enabled them to live with storms and limit their exposure to damage.
On the larger islands, such as Jamaica and Cuba, the Taino practiced crop selection with storms in mind, preferring to plant root crops such as cassava or yucca with high resistance to damage from hurricane and storm winds, as Stuart Schwartz describes in his 2016 book “Sea of Storms.”
But then colonialism changed everything.
A French advertising card from around 1900 depicts colonial power in Guadeloupe, with a trader sitting comfortably among sacks of cotton, cocoa and coffee while islanders work in the field. Universal History Archive/Universal Images Group via Getty Images
The current disaster crisis that the Caribbean’s small islands are experiencing as hurricanes intensify did not start a few decades ago. Rather, the islands’ vulnerability is a direct result of the exploitative systems forced upon the region by colonialism, its legacies of slave-based land policies and ill-suited construction and development practices, and its environmental injustices.
Rather than growing crops that could sustain the local food supply, the Europeans who began arriving in the 1600s focused on exploitative extractive economic models and export cash crops through the plantation economy.
They forced Indigenous people off their lands and built settlements along the coast, which made it easier to import enslaved peoples and goods and to export cash crops such as sugar and tobacco to Europe – and also left communities vulnerable to storms. They also developed settlements in low-lying areas, often near rivers and streams, which could provide transportation for agricultural produce but which became flood risks during heavy rains.
Homes built to the water’s edge in Saint-Martin, an overseas collectivity of France, were devastated when Hurricane Irma hit in 2017. Helene Valenzuela/AFP via Getty Images
Today, more than 70% of the Caribbean’s population lives along the coast, often less than a mile from the shore. These coastlines are not only highly exposed to hurricanes but also to sea-level rise fueled by climate change.
Legacies of slave-based land policies
Colonialism’s legacy of land policies has also made recovery from disasters much harder today.
When colonial powers took over, a few landowners were given control of most of the land, while the majority of the population was forced onto marginal and small areas. The local population had no legal right to the land, as the people did not possess land certificate titles or deeds and were often forced to pay rent to landlords.
After independence, most island governments tried to acquire land from former plantations or estates and to redistribute it to the working class. But these efforts, mainly in the 1960s and ’70s, largely failed to transform land ownership, improve economic development or reduce vulnerability.
One colonial legacy perpetuating vulnerability to this day is known as crown land, or state land. In the English-speaking Caribbean, all land for which there was no land grant was considered property of the British crown. Crown land can be found in every English-speaking island to this day. https://www.youtube.com/embed/YTckM-cNeII?wmode=transparent&start=0 How colonial powers controlled the Caribbean over time.
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For example, in Barbuda, all land is vested in the “crown in perpetuity” on behalf of Barbudans. This means that an individual born on the island of Barbuda cannot individually own land.
After emancipation from slavery, freed people had no right nor access to land. To build houses, they were forced to lease land from the former enslavers who at a whim could terminate their employment or kick them off the land.
This led to the development of a particular type of housing structure known as chattel houses in countries such as Barbados. These houses are tiny and were constructed in a way in which they could be easily taken apart and loaded onto carts, should the residents be forced out by their former enslavers. Many Bajans still live in these houses today, although quite a few have been converted to restaurants or shops.
Chattel houses are still used as homes in Barbados. Shardalow via Wikimedia, CC BY
In Aruba, Bonaire and Curaçao, owned by the Dutch, slave huts were built along the coast, on land not suitable for agriculture and easily damaged by storms. These former slave huts are now tourist attractions, but the colonial patterns of settling along the coast has left many coastal communities exposed to hurricane damage and rising seas.
The vulnerability of such houses is not only a result of their exposure to natural hazards but also the underlying social structures.
In many islands today, poorer residents can’t afford protective measures, such as installing storm shutters or purchasing solar-powered generators.
They often live in marginal and disaster-prone areas, such as steep hillsides, where housing tends to be cheaper. Houses in these areas are also often poorly constructed with low-grade materials, such as galvanized sheeting for roofs and walls.
This situation is made worse by the informal and unregulated nature of residential housing construction in the region and the poor enforcement of building codes.
Due to the legacy of colonialism, most housing or building standards or codes in the Commonwealth Caribbean are relics from the United Kingdom and in the French Antilles from France. Building standards across the region lack uniformity and are generally subjective and uncontrolled. Financial limitations and staffing constraints mean that codes and standards more often than not remain unenforced.
Progress, but still a lot of work to do
The Caribbean has made progress in developing wind-related building codes to try to increase resilience in recent years. And while damage from torrential rain is still not properly addressed in most Caribbean building standards, scientific guidance is available through the Caribbean Institute for Meteorology and Hydrology in Barbados.
Construction standards can help the islands build resilience. But work remains to be done to overcome the legacy of colonial-era land policies and development that have left island towns vulnerable to increasing storm risks.
The Bridge is a section of the STM Daily News Blog meant for diversity, offering real news stories about bona fide community efforts to perpetuate a greater good. The purpose of The Bridge is to connect the divides that separate us, fostering understanding and empathy among different groups. By highlighting positive initiatives and inspirational actions, The Bridge aims to create a sense of unity and shared purpose. This section brings to light stories of individuals and organizations working tirelessly to promote inclusivity, equality, and mutual respect. Through these narratives, readers are encouraged to appreciate the richness of diverse perspectives and to participate actively in building stronger, more cohesive communities.
Did James Webb Find Life on a Distant Planet Recently?
Recent findings from the James Webb Space Telescope suggest potential biosignatures on exoplanet K2-18b, including dimethyl sulfide, indicating possible microbial life, though further research is necessary.
James Webb Space Telescope mission observing universe. This image elements furnished by NASA
While the answer to that question is not a definitive “yes,” recent findings from the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) are providing what scientists are calling the “strongest evidence yet” of potential life on an exoplanet, specifically K2-18b. This discovery opens a new frontier in our understanding of the universe and the possibility of life beyond Earth.
The Discovery
A dedicated team of astronomers recently utilized the powerful capabilities of the JWST to analyze the atmosphere of K2-18b, a super-Earth exoplanet located an incredible 124 light-years away from our planet. Their findings have revealed chemical signatures in the atmosphere that warrant further investigation.
The Biosignature
Among the intriguing detections was dimethyl sulfide (DMS) and potentially dimethyl disulfide (DMDS). These compounds are significant because, on Earth, they are predominantly produced by living organisms, with marine microbes being the primary source. The presence of these chemicals in K2-18b’s atmosphere suggests the potential for biological processes at work.
The Context
DMS is primarily emitted by marine phytoplankton, a crucial element of oceanic ecosystems. The detection of DMS in the atmosphere of K2-18b is interpreted as a potential indicator of microbial life, potentially thriving in an ocean on the planet. This tantalizing prospect encourages scientists to contemplate the types of ecosystems that could flourish far beyond Earth.
Caution
However, it is essential to approach these findings with the appropriate level of caution. While the presence of these compounds is compelling, scientists emphasize that this does not serve as definitive confirmation of life. Further observations and rigorous analyses are necessary to rule out other non-biological explanations for the presence of DMS and DMDS in K2-18b’s atmosphere.
Significance
This detection represents a significant leap forward in the ongoing quest to uncover extraterrestrial life. It is the first time scientists have successfully identified potential biosignatures on an exoplanet using advanced astronomical technology. This marks a pivotal moment in astrobiology, helping to narrow the focus of future exploration.
Future Research
The JWST will continue to play a vital role in studying K2-18b, as well as other exoplanets, in the relentless pursuit of knowledge about life in the cosmos. Ongoing research will seek to deepen our understanding and potentially corroborate these exciting initial findings.
In conclusion, while the James Webb Space Telescope has not definitively found life on K2-18b, the detection of biosignatures in its atmosphere represents a groundbreaking step in humanity’s exploration of worlds beyond our own. As scientists push forward, we stand on the brink of potentially transformative discoveries that could change our understanding of life in the universe. Stay tuned for further updates as we journey into the stars!
The science section of our news blog, STM Daily News, provides readers with captivating and up-to-date information on the latest scientific discoveries, breakthroughs, and innovations across various fields. We offer engaging and accessible content, ensuring that readers with different levels of scientific knowledge can stay informed. Whether it’s exploring advancements in medicine, astronomy, technology, or environmental sciences, our science section strives to shed light on the intriguing world of scientific exploration and its profound impact on our daily lives. From thought-provoking articles to informative interviews with experts in the field, STM Daily News Science offers a harmonious blend of factual reporting, analysis, and exploration, making it a go-to source for science enthusiasts and curious minds alike. https://stmdailynews.com/category/science/
Zelle Shuts Down Standalone App: Transitioning Users to Bank Platforms
Zelle’s standalone app ceased money transfers on April 1, 2025, requiring users to access the service via participating banks, enhancing security amid rising digital fraud.
On April 1, 2025, Zelle, one of the most widely used digital payment services in the United States, officially shut down the money transferring services available on its standalone mobile app. While the service itself is not disappearing, many users will need to adapt to a new way of accessing this popular tool for peer-to-peer payments.
Why It Matters
Zelle has established itself as a key player in the peer-to-peer payment market. It facilitates instantaneous transfers without fees between bank accounts, making it a foundational tool for consumers and small businesses alike. The change primarily affects those who previously used the Zelle app independently of their bank’s app or website. Users will now need to re-enroll with one of the 2,200 participating banks or credit unions that offer Zelle via their digital banking platforms.
What Is Happening to the App?
Though the standalone Zelle app has closed its money transfer services, users will still be able to access it. The app now provides a directory of the over 2,200 banks and credit unions that support Zelle. A recent press release indicates that the app will shift its focus to consumer education, particularly around scams and fraud prevention. According to an in-app alert accessed on April 4, users can continue to log into the app until August 11, 2025.
Why Is Zelle Shutting Down the App?
Zelle announced the decision to shut down its standalone app back in October 2024, noting that a significant majority of its users already access the service through their bank’s apps or websites. Since the announcement, the company has been phasing out enrollment and transaction capabilities within the standalone app. Late last year, Zelle communicated again via in-app alerts and emails, urging users to migrate to their bank or credit union’s platform to continue using the service.
In a statement regarding the shift, Zelle highlighted its remarkable growth, reporting that consumers and small businesses moved nearly half a trillion dollars on the platform in the first half of 2024, a 28% year-over-year increase. Initially launched in 2017 primarily for users whose financial institutions had not yet joined the network, Zelle has experienced widespread adoption across almost all major banks and credit unions.
Zelle’s decision may also be motivated by security concerns. With an uptick in fraud targeting digital payment apps, directing users through regulated financial institutions may afford them additional protection and oversight.
When Did the App Shut Down?
The standalone Zelle app ceased processing transactions on April 1, 2025. Users can no longer send or receive money via the app, and those who wish to continue using Zelle must re-enroll through a compatible bank or credit union’s mobile app or website.
How Will My Payments Be Affected?
Individuals who previously used the standalone Zelle app need to take action. They can no longer send or receive money via the app and must migrate to a bank or credit union that offers Zelle. Users who do not re-enroll through a partner institution should inform their senders accordingly.
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To check if a specific bank supports Zelle, visit enroll.zellepay.com. Once logged into a bank’s mobile app or website, users can usually locate Zelle in the “Payments” or “Transfers” section. The transition may require users to verify their email address or phone number associated with their former Zelle account.
Fortunately, those using Zelle through their mobile banking app will not experience any changes and do not need to take further action.
How Many People Use Zelle?
As of June 2024, Zelle boasted 143 million consumer and small business accounts, with users executing money transfers 1.7 billion times in the previous year. The integration of Zelle into nearly all major U.S. banks indicates that it will likely retain its dominance in the digital payment space, despite the changes to its standalone application.
While the shutdown of Zelle’s standalone app marks a significant transition, the underlying service remains robust and widely utilized. By directing users to bank platforms, Zelle aims to enhance security and further solidify its position in the competitive landscape of digital payments. As users adapt to this change, Zelle continues to play a vital role in simplifying and securing money transfers across the country.
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One of two main craters on Alaska’s Mount Spurr, shown in 1991. Earthquake activity suggests the volcano is close to erupting again in 2025.
R.G. McGimsey/Alaska Volcano Observatory/U.S. Geological Survey, CC BYDavid Kitchen, University of Richmond
Volcanoes inspire awe with spectacular eruptions and incandescent rivers of lava, but often their deadliest hazard is what quietly falls from the sky.
When a large volcano erupts, as Mount Spurr appears close to doing about 80 miles from Anchorage, Alaska, it can release enormous volumes of ash. Fine ash can infiltrate the lungs of people and animals who breathe it in, poison crops and disrupt aquatic life. Thick deposits of ash can collapse roofs, cripple utilities and disrupt transport networks.
Ash may lack the visual impact of flowing lava, but as a geologist who studies disasters, I’m aware that ash travels farther, lasts longer and leaves deep scars.
Ash buried cars and buildings after the 1984 eruption of Rabaul in Papua New Guinea.Volcano Hazards Program, U.S. Geological Survey
Volcanic ash: What it is, and why it matters
Volcanic ash forms when viscous magma – molten rock from deep beneath Earth’s surface – erupts, exploding into shards of rock, mineral and glass carried in a near-supersonic stream of hot gas.
Towering clouds of ash rise several miles into the atmosphere, where the ash is captured by high-altitude winds that can carry it hundreds or even thousands of miles.
As the volcanic ash settles back to Earth, it accumulates in layers that typically decrease in thickness with distance from the eruption source. Near the vent, the ash may be several feet deep, but communities farther away may see only a dusting.
When Mount Spurr erupted in 1992, a dark column of ash and gas shot into the atmosphere from the volcano’s Crater Peak vent. Wind patterns determine where the ash will fall.U.S. Geological Survey
Breathing danger: Health risks from ash
Breathing volcanic ash can irritate the throat and lungs, trigger asthma attacks and aggravate chronic respiratory conditions such as COPD.
The finest particles pose the greatest risk because they can penetrate deep into the lungs and cause death by asphyxiation in the worst cases. Mild, short-term symptoms often resolve with rest. However, the long-term consequences of ash exposure can include silicosis, a lung disease and a possible cause of cancer.
The danger increases in dry regions where fallen ash can be kicked up into the air again by wind or human activity.
Risks to pets and livestock
Humans aren’t the only ones at risk. Animals experience similar respiratory symptoms to humans.
Domestic pets can develop respiratory distress, eye inflammation and paw irritation from exposure to ash.
Ash covers sheep in Argentina after the 2011 Puyehue volcanic eruption in Chile.Federico Grosso/U.S. Geological Survey
Livestock face greater dangers. If grazing animals eat volcanic ash, it can damage their teeth, block their intestines and poison them.
During the 2010 Eyjafjallajökull eruption in Iceland, farmers were advised to shelter sheep and cattle because the ash contained fluoride concentrations above the recognized safety threshold of 400 parts per million. Animals that remained exposed became sick and some died.
Harm to crops, soil and water
Soil and crops can also be damaged. Volcanic ash alters the acidity of soil and introduces harmful elements such as arsenic and sulfur into the environment.
While the ash can add nutrients such as potassium and phosphorus that enhance fertility, the immediate impact is mostly harmful.
Ash can smother crops, block sunlight and clog the tiny stomata, or pores, in leaves that allow plants to exchange gases with the atmosphere. It can also introduce toxins that render food unmarketable. Vegetables, fruit trees and vines are particularly vulnerable, but even sturdy cereals and grasses can die if ash remains on leaves or poisons emerging shoots.
Following the 1991 Mount Pinatubo eruption, vast tracts of farmland in central Luzon in the Philippines were rendered unproductive for years due to acidic ash and buried topsoil. If multiple ashfalls occur in a growing season, crop failure becomes a near certainty. It was the cause of a historic famine that followed the eruption of Mount Tambora in 1815.
Ash from a 1953 eruption of Mount Spurr included very fine grains, like powder. The ash cloud reached about 70,000 feet high and left Anchorage under a blanket of ash up to a quarter-inch deep, according to a U.S. Geological Survey report at the time.James St. John via Wikimedia Commons, CC BYElectron microscope images of ash show how sharp the shards are. The top left image of shards from Mount Etna in 2002 is 1 mm across. Top right is an ash particle from Mount St. Helens magnified 200 times. The shards in the lower images are less than 0.064 mm.Volcano Hazards Program, U.S. Geological Survey
Ash can also contaminate surface water by introducing toxins and increasing the water’s acidity. The toxins can leach into groundwater, contaminating wells. Fine ash particles can also settle in waterways and smother aquatic plants and animals. During the 2008 Chaitén eruption in Chile, ash contamination led to widespread fish deaths in the Río Blanco.
Ash can ground airplanes, gum up infrastructure
Ash clouds are extremely dangerous to aircraft. The glassy ash particles melt when sucked into jet turbines, clog fuel systems and can stall engines in midair.
In 1982, British Airways Flight 9 lost power in all four engines after flying through an ash cloud. A similar incident occurred in 1989 to KLM Flight 867 over Alaska. In 2010, Iceland’s Eyjafjallajökull eruption grounded more than 100,000 flights across Europe, disrupting travel for over 10 million passengers and costing the global economy billions of dollars.
Volcanic ash can also wreak havoc on infrastructure by clogging water supplies, short-circuiting electrical systems and collapsing roofs under its weight. It can disrupt transportation, communication, rescue and power networks, as the 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines dramatically demonstrated.
What to do during ashfall
During an ashfall event, the most effective strategy to stay safe is to stay indoors as much as possible and avoid inhaling ash particles.
Anyone who must go outside should wear a properly fitted N95 or P2 mask. Cloth masks provide little protection against fine ash. Rainwater tanks, troughs and open wells should be covered and monitored for contamination. Livestock should be moved to clean pastures or given uncontaminated fodder.
The challenges Alaska is facing if Mount Spurr erupts.
To reduce structural damage, ash should be cleared from roofs and gutters promptly, especially before rainfall.
Older adults, children and people who are sick are at greatest risk, particularly those living in poorly ventilated homes. Rural communities that are dependent on agriculture and livestock are disproportionately affected by ashfall, as are low-income people who lack access to clean water, protective masks or safe shelter.
Communities can stay informed about ash risks through official alerts, including those from the Volcanic Ash Advisory Centers, which monitor ash dispersion and issue timely warnings. The International Volcanic Health Hazard Network also offers guidelines on personal protection, emergency planning and ash cleanup.
The long tail of ash
Volcanic ash may fall quietly, but its effects are widespread, persistent and potentially deadly. It poses a chronic threat to health, agriculture, infrastructure and aquatic systems.
Recognizing the risk is a crucial first step to protecting lives. Effective planning and public awareness can further help reduce the damage.
David Kitchen, Associate Professor of Geology, University of Richmond
This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.
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