Hilary Smith, University of Denver

Lactose intolerance makes drinking milk or eating ice cream a literal pain. For some people, eating a dairy treat can lead to bloating, nausea and diarrhea. You might’ve experienced its effects yourself. If so, you may think of lactose intolerance as a defect rather than the norm.

But did you know that most people in the world today are lactose intolerant – and that the condition itself was invented in the 1960s?

“Surely you mean discovered, not invented,” I hear you saying. I don’t. As a historian who has traced the origins of nutrition-science ideas, I have chosen the word “invented” on purpose.

Inventing lactose intolerance

Variations in people’s ability to digest lactose first came to scientists’ attention after American dairy producers found a way to rid themselves of a postwar milk surplus. To offload what they couldn’t sell, they looked to the government to intervene. And it did, buying the excess and embedding it in school lunches and other places with publicly funded meals.

Suddenly, many people who had not habitually drunk milk were consuming it regularly, including not only some Americans but also people overseas. Part of that same milk surplus found its way into school lunches in places such as Japan and Taiwan in the 1950s as the American government began to sell milk to allies during the Cold War.

Many of the groups drinking milk regularly for the first time did not like it. In fact, it made them feel sick. Intrigued, scientists set up experiments to figure out why. In a 1966 study comparing how Black and white people incarcerated in Baltimore metabolized lactose, researchers found that Black participants had lower levels of lactase – the enzyme that breaks down lactose – in their guts.

To the white scientists conducting this study, the trouble that the Black prisoners had digesting milk looked like an “inborn error of metabolism.” They assumed that the normal human state was lactose tolerance and that the lactose intolerant had inherited a genetic mutation.

It was only after years more work with research participants of many races that experts realized that, as one National Institutes of Health official put it in 1981, “lactose intolerance is a normal physiological condition, shared by every adult animal except for certain ethnic and racial groups in man.” People of northern European descent, it turned out, were the weird ones. It was their ancestors who had passed down a genetic mutation – one that made them able to digest milk after infancy.

In short, what scientists discovered in the 1960s was that different bodies process milk differently. What they invented was the idea that lactose intolerance is a defect. Accepting that framing would mean nearly two-thirds of the human population – the estimated prevalence of lactose intolerance worldwide – is defective.

Instead of acknowledging that dairy-free diets can be healthy, people innovated ways to overcome this supposed disability so everyone could consume more.

Nutritional imperialism

Lactose intolerance is one example of what I call nutritional imperialism: a way of thinking that treats white diets as the norm and everyone else’s as an aberration.

Nutritional imperialism was common in the 20th century, when scientists thought that not only milk-rich but also meat-heavy diets were best; they considered diets outside of the United States and Europe too vegetarian. Some also argued that wheat flour, not rice, ought to be the universal staple.

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The same bias applied to bodies. Besides faulty lactose digestion, nonwhite bodies were accused of other failures, too, such as aldehyde dehydrogenase deficiency, an inability to digest alcohol quickly. The less technical term for this may be more familiar: Asian flush.

Such differences might have been thought of as variety, just another way of being human. Instead, each became a deficiency.

Many people today have inherited and perpetuated this way of thinking without knowing it, including those who are deemed deficient by it. In 1959, the director of Japan’s nutrition bureau declared that “rice-eating peoples” such as the Japanese were “resigned and passive” and could correct this by imitating Western diets and switching to wheat.

Today, the most prominent scientist promoting the idea that Asian flush is a disease is a geneticist of Taiwanese descent who started a research consortium to study “the most common human enzymopathy in the world.”

The Chinese Nutrition Society placed a tall glass of milk next to its 2022 Food Guide Plate – never mind estimates that the vast majority of Han Chinese, the largest ethnic group in China and worldwide, are lactose intolerant.

Turning sickness back into difference

Science that pathologizes difference helps racism persist.

In recent years, white supremacists have embraced the concept of lactose intolerance as a distinguishing debility of nonwhite people. Social media users have copied and pasted a map of the geographic distribution of lactose tolerance originally published in the scientific journal Nature into racist chat threads on the online discussion forum 4chan.

In 2017, internet trolls disrupted an anti-racist art installation with neo-Nazi chants and messily downed jugs of milk to accentuate their white identity.

Turning a lactose-digestion difference into a deficiency has done more to reinforce narratives of racial hierarchy than to improve public health. So here’s a suggestion: If you enjoy eating dairy, keep doing it; if you don’t, don’t – and know that there is nothing wrong with you.

Hilary Smith, Professor of History, University of Denver

This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.

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Last Updated on August 28, 2026 by Daily News Staff

Country music legend, songwriter, actress and philanthropist Dolly Parton has died at the age of 80, bringing to a close one of the most remarkable careers in American entertainment.

Dolly Parton Dies at 80

Dolly Parton, whose unmistakable voice, songwriting talent, humor and generosity made her an American cultural icon far beyond the world of country music, died Tuesday, August 25, 2026, in Nashville.

Parton died at Vanderbilt-Ingram Cancer Center following a brief battle with cancer, according to her publicist. She was surrounded by loved ones. The specific type of cancer has not been publicly disclosed.

For millions of fans around the world, the news marks the loss of an entertainer who seemed almost timeless.

From the Tennessee Mountains to Stardom

Born Dolly Rebecca Parton on January 19, 1946, in Sevier County, Tennessee, Parton grew up as one of 12 children in a family with little money.

Those beginnings would become an important part of both her identity and her music.

Rather than distancing herself from her Appalachian upbringing after becoming famous, Parton repeatedly returned to those experiences in her songwriting. Songs such as “Coat of Many Colors” transformed childhood memories into stories about poverty, family, dignity and love.

After moving to Nashville, Parton eventually became a nationally known performer, including through her partnership with Porter Wagoner.

But it was her ability to write songs that helped establish her as one of the defining artists of her generation.

Her catalog would eventually include classics such as “Jolene,” “I Will Always Love You,” “Coat of Many Colors,” “Here You Come Again” and “9 to 5.”

“I Will Always Love You,” originally written and recorded by Parton in the 1970s, would find an entirely new audience when Whitney Houston recorded a soaring version for the 1992 film The Bodyguard.

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More Than a Country Singer

Calling Dolly Parton simply a country music star never quite captured the full scope of her career.

She crossed into pop music, television and Hollywood while maintaining her country roots.

Her starring role alongside Jane Fonda and Lily Tomlin in the 1980 comedy 9 to 5 helped turn her into a major movie star. The film’s title song became another Parton classic and an enduring anthem about the frustrations of working life.

Parton later appeared in films including The Best Little Whorehouse in Texas, Steel Magnolias and Straight Talk.

She also became an extraordinarily successful businesswoman.

Her association with Dollywood, the Tennessee theme park bearing her name, helped transform the attraction into one of the state’s best-known tourist destinations while bringing jobs and investment to the region where she grew up.

A Legacy Built Around Giving

Parton’s impact may ultimately be measured by more than records sold, awards won or movies made.

Through the Dolly Parton Imagination Library, founded in 1995, free books have been provided to children from birth to age five.

What began as a literacy program serving children in Parton’s home county in Tennessee grew into an international effort distributing books to children in the United States and several other countries.

Parton also contributed to disaster relief, education and medical research. During the COVID-19 pandemic, she donated $1 million to Vanderbilt University Medical Center research that helped support development of the Moderna COVID-19 vaccine.

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Her philanthropy became almost as recognizable as her music.

An Artist Who Crossed Generations

Perhaps one of Parton’s most unusual achievements was her ability to remain relevant without abandoning the personality that made her famous.

Parents who grew up hearing Dolly Parton records introduced her music to their children and grandchildren. Country fans embraced her, but so did rock musicians, pop artists, actors and audiences who might rarely listen to country music.

Her enormous blonde hair, rhinestones and colorful outfits became instantly recognizable, and Parton frequently made herself the punchline of jokes about her appearance before anyone else had the opportunity.

Behind that carefully cultivated public image was a songwriter responsible for thousands of compositions and a businesswoman who maintained considerable control over her work.

Even late in her career, Parton continued exploring new musical territory. Her 2023 album Rockstar featured collaborations with major figures from rock and pop music and demonstrated yet again her ability to move between genres.

Tributes Pour In

News of Parton’s death quickly prompted tributes from across entertainment and public life.

Musicians, actors, friends and admirers remembered not only her extraordinary career but also the kindness and generosity for which she had become known.

The reaction reflects something that made Parton unusual among celebrities of her stature: she became a figure whose appeal extended across generations, regions and many of the cultural divisions of American life.

Her husband, Carl Dean, died in March 2025 at the age of 82. The famously private Dean and Parton had been married for nearly 60 years.

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The Music Remains

Dolly Parton’s career is difficult to summarize because it was never confined to one thing.

She was a country singer who became a pop star.

A songwriter who became a movie star.

A girl who grew up poor in the mountains of Tennessee and became a highly successful entrepreneur.

And a celebrity who turned much of her wealth and fame toward helping children she would never meet.

Dolly Parton died at 80, but the songs, stories and institutions she created will continue long after her passing.

For generations of listeners, hearing the opening guitar of “Jolene,” the tenderness of “Coat of Many Colors,” or the unmistakable opening of “9 to 5” will immediately bring her back.

And perhaps that is one of the greatest legacies a songwriter can leave behind.

STM Daily News will publish a more comprehensive look at Dolly Parton’s extraordinary life, career and lasting cultural impact in the coming days.

Sources:
Associated Press — Dolly Parton dies at 80

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Reuters — Dolly Parton dies at 80

Related Links:
Official Dolly Parton Website

Dolly Parton’s Imagination Library

Dollywood

You’ve probably seen them hundreds of times.

They sit outside supermarkets, convenience stores and shopping centers—or sometimes stand alone in small roadside kiosks. You bring an empty bottle, usually one, three or five gallons, put in some money, push a button and watch purified water pour into your container.

For many people in California, Arizona and other parts of the American West, water vending machines seem like they’ve simply always been there.

But when did we actually start buying water this way?

The answer takes us back more than a century, although the machines we recognize today didn’t really arrive until the 1970s.

The Water Vending Machine’s Surprising Ancestor

The story begins in Boston in 1908 with a man named Lawrence Luellen.

Luellen was working on something that sounds surprisingly modern: a machine that would allow someone to pay a penny and receive a clean drink of water in an individual disposable cup.

At the time, public drinking water was often consumed from a communal cup or metal dipper—a practice that increasingly worried public-health officials because of the potential spread of disease.

Luellen developed a paper drinking cup along with what became known as the Luellen Cup & Water Vendor. The porcelain machine contained water, ice, disposable cups and a place for discarded cups.

For one penny, a customer could get a drink of cold water in a fresh cup.

Historical records at Lafayette College’s Hugh Moore Dixie Cup Company Collection show that Luellen completed work on the vending apparatus in early 1908. His company, the American Water Supply Company of New England, was incorporated on April 4 of that year.

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There was just one problem.

The complete water machine was expensive to manufacture.

The company eventually concentrated on selling the disposable cups and cup dispensers instead. Those cups ultimately evolved into one of America’s most recognizable household products—the Dixie Cup.

So although Luellen’s machine wasn’t the five-gallon refill station we know today, the basic idea was already there:

Put money into a machine and receive drinking water.

The Modern Water Vending Machine Arrives

The next major chapter didn’t occur until roughly 65 years later.

According to histories of the water-vending industry, the first practical machines designed to sell purified water in bulk appeared during the mid-1970s.

These were fundamentally different from Luellen’s machine.

Instead of giving customers a cup of water, the new machines treated water—typically municipal tap water—and allowed customers to fill their own reusable containers.

And we have unusually strong evidence that these machines were operating by 1976.

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On July 26, 1976, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency issued a memorandum specifically addressing the regulatory status of water vending machines.

The EPA described machines that filtered and disinfected water with ultraviolet light and then dispensed the treated water into a customer’s own container using a coin-operated mechanism.

In other words, by the summer of 1976, the basic water-refill machine many of us recognize today was already operating in the United States.

Why the 1970s?

The timing wasn’t accidental.

Americans had become increasingly concerned about pollution and drinking-water quality during the 1960s and 1970s.

Congress passed the Safe Drinking Water Act in 1974, establishing a federal framework for protecting public drinking-water supplies. National drinking-water regulations followed during the decade.

Meanwhile, technologies such as filtration, activated carbon treatment, ultraviolet disinfection and eventually reverse osmosis made it practical to build relatively compact systems capable of treating municipal water at the point where it was sold.

The result was a new business opportunity:

Instead of transporting thousands of bottles of water to a store, a vending company could connect a machine to the local water supply, purify that water on site and sell it by the gallon.

Customers supplied the bottle.

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California Helps Turn It Into a Business

California became one of the industry’s most important early markets.

One company that would eventually become a major player was founded by Robert G. Miller.

In 1983, Miller established Bottle Water Vending Inc., the predecessor of Glacier Water Services.

The company manufactured water vending machines and placed many of them outside supermarkets. Customers brought their own containers, while participating stores often sold reusable plastic jugs nearby.

The machines treated municipal water using combinations of filtration, reverse osmosis, carbon treatment and ultraviolet sterilization.

The idea caught on quickly.

In 1984, the company expanded from California into Arizona.

Nevada followed in 1986.

By 1987, the company reportedly had nearly 900 water vending machines operating.

Texas and Florida followed in 1988.

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The familiar supermarket water-refill station was becoming a significant business.

Then Came the Drive-Up Water Kiosk

Another variation appeared at almost exactly the same time.

In 1984, Lani and Don Dolifka developed what became Watermill Express in Colorado.

Their idea was an automated stand-alone purification kiosk capable of taking municipal water, processing it through multiple purification stages and selling the finished drinking water directly to customers.

Instead of walking into a supermarket, customers could pull up to the kiosk with their bottles.

Later Watermill Express systems were designed to accommodate reusable containers ranging from one to five gallons, using treatment processes including sediment filtration, activated carbon, reverse osmosis, ultraviolet disinfection and ozone treatment.

That basic concept remains familiar today.

Why Five-Gallon Bottles?

The five-gallon container was already well established through traditional bottled-water delivery services.

But refill vending changed the economics.

Instead of purchasing another filled bottle—or waiting for a delivery—a customer could keep the same container and refill it repeatedly.

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That eliminated much of the packaging and transportation involved with conventional bottled water.

It also made purified drinking water relatively inexpensive.

Bring the jug.

Buy the water.

Take the same jug home.

Bring it back when it’s empty.

More than four decades later, that’s still essentially how the system works.

So Who Invented the Modern Water Vending Machine?

That’s where the story gets complicated.

There doesn’t appear to be a single universally recognized inventor of the modern bulk purified-water vending machine.

Lawrence Luellen developed an important early coin-operated water vending concept in 1908, but his machine dispensed an individual drink and disposable cup—not gallons of purified water into a customer’s reusable bottle.

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The modern bulk-water machine emerged much later, apparently during the mid-1970s, as water-treatment technology and consumer concern about drinking-water quality converged.

By 1976, the EPA was already dealing with the regulatory implications of machines that treated municipal water and sold it through coin-operated dispensers into customers’ own containers.

Entrepreneurs and companies then refined and expanded the idea during the 1980s.

From a Penny Cup to Five Gallons at a Time

The evolution is remarkable.

1908: Put in a penny and receive a cup of cold water.

Mid-1970s: Machines begin treating municipal water and selling purified water in bulk.

1976: The EPA documents coin-operated machines dispensing treated water into customers’ containers.

1983: Bottle Water Vending, the predecessor of Glacier Water Services, begins operations in California.

1984: Glacier’s predecessor expands into Arizona, while Watermill Express develops its automated purification kiosk in Colorado.

Late 1980s and beyond: Water refill machines become increasingly familiar outside supermarkets and at stand-alone locations throughout the United States.

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Today, paying a few coins—or tapping a card—and filling a five-gallon jug might seem thoroughly ordinary.

But the machine sitting outside your neighborhood supermarket represents more than a century of evolution in how Americans buy something that once seemed almost unimaginable to sell from a vending machine:

a drink of water.

Sources and Further Reading

U.S. EPA — Status of Water Vending Machines Under Public Law 93-523

Lafayette College — Hugh Moore Dixie Cup Company Collection

U.S. EPA — Safe Water Research Milestones

Glacier Water Services Company History

World Vision — History of Watermill Express

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