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US women narrowed the pay gap with men by having fewer kids
US women narrowed the pay gap: In 2024, U.S. women earned 85% of men’s wages, an improvement from 65% in the mid-1980s. A key factor in narrowing the pay gap is the decline in birth rates, which affects men’s and women’s wages differently, impacting women’s progress.
US women narrowed the pay gap with men by having fewer kids
Alexandra Killewald, University of Michigan and Nino Cricco, Harvard University
Women in the U.S. typically earned 85% as much as men for every hour they spent working in 2024. However, working women are faring much better than their moms and grandmothers did 40 years ago. In the mid-1980s, women were making only 65% as much as men for every hour of paid work.
Women’s wages have improved relative to what men earn in part because of gains in their education and work experience, and because women have moved into higher-paying occupations. But progress toward pay equality has stalled.
As sociologists and demographers, we wanted to know whether changes in American families might also have helped women come closer to pay equality with men. In an article published in June 2025 in Social Forces, an academic journal, we argued that this pay gap is becoming smaller in part because women are having fewer children.
Moms earn less but dads earn more
In the U.S. and elsewhere, ample evidence shows that parenthood affects men’s and women’s wages differently.
Compared to remaining childless, motherhood leads to wage losses for women. And those losses are larger when women have more kids.
By contrast, after men become fathers their wages usually rise.
Because having kids tends to push women’s wages down and men’s wages up, parenthood widens the gender pay gap.
Decline in birth rate plays a role
Americans are having fewer kids in general. Women, including those who don’t work outside the home, had an average of about three children by their 40s in 1980. By 2000, that average had fallen to 1.9, and it has been fairly stable since then.
To see whether changes in how many kids working American moms have affects what they earn relative to men, we analyzed data collected from a nationally representative sample of U.S. families. We tracked trends over time in the number of children that employed Americans ages 30-55 have.
We found that employees’ average number of children fell significantly between 1980 and 2000, declining from around 2.4 to around 1.8. That average stabilized after 2000; employees had an average of about 1.8 children in 2018 – the most recent year in our analysis.
https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/oYJC1/1
At the same time, the pay that women in this age range earned per hour relative to men rose steeply. It climbed from 58% in 1980 to 69% by 1990 and then rose more gradually to 76% by 2018. That is, as people were having fewer kids, the gender pay gap got smaller. For both trends, there was rapid change in the 1980s, followed by slower change after 1990.
We next estimated whether declines in the number of children men and women have can explain the narrowing of the gender pay gap between 1980 and 2018.
We found that, even after adjusting for other factors, such as years of education, prior work experience and occupation, about 8% of the decline in the gender pay gap can be explained by the lower number of children working women and men are having.
Next, we showed that the number of children American employees had declined faster in the 1980s than later on. That slowdown coincided with a deceleration of women’s gains in pay relative to men. Once the average number of children that U.S. employees had stabilized around 2000, so did women’s progress toward earning as much as men.
https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/anMoC/1
Questions about the future of US fertility
U.S. scholars and policymakers are debating whether and why Americans are having fewer children today than one or two decades ago, and what the government should do about it.
We agree that these are important questions.
Our research shows that any future changes in how many children Americans have are very likely to affect how quickly women and men reach pay equality. But it’s not inevitable.
The number of children Americans have affects the gender pay gap only because parenthood decreases women’s wages while increasing men’s wages. As long as these unequal effects of parenthood on what men and women earn persist, they will continue to act as a brake on women’s progress toward equal pay.
Alexandra Killewald, Professor of Sociology, University of Michigan and Nino Cricco, Doctoral Student in Sociology, Harvard University
This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.
The Bridge is a section of the STM Daily News Blog meant for diversity, offering real news stories about bona fide community efforts to perpetuate a greater good. The purpose of The Bridge is to connect the divides that separate us, fostering understanding and empathy among different groups. By highlighting positive initiatives and inspirational actions, The Bridge aims to create a sense of unity and shared purpose. This section brings to light stories of individuals and organizations working tirelessly to promote inclusivity, equality, and mutual respect. Through these narratives, readers are encouraged to appreciate the richness of diverse perspectives and to participate actively in building stronger, more cohesive communities.
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As the United States moves toward the 250th anniversary of its independence, a new public storytelling project is asking Americans to answer a big question: what does the American Dream mean today?
McCourt Entertainment has launched America-Dreams.com at SXSW as a digital platform designed to collect video submissions from people across the country. The goal is ambitious: gather one million voices reflecting on hope, opportunity, and what Americans want the future of the country to look like.
The initiative is tied to AMERIGO, an upcoming documentary presented by South Florida PBS and distributed by American Public Television. The film, which will be available to PBS stations nationwide beginning in June as part of 2026 programming tied to the nation’s 250th anniversary, explores the past, present, and future of the American Dream through conversations with people across the United States.
According to the project team, selected user-submitted videos may become part of the broader AMERIGOstorytelling effort, turning the campaign into more than a promotional rollout. Instead, it is being framed as a living archive of public voices gathered during a milestone moment in American history.
South Florida PBS President and CEO Dolores Fernandez Alonso said the goal is to make the anniversary feel inclusive and participatory.
“To celebrate the 250th anniversary of America’s independence, we wanted to do something truly remarkable and invite all Americans to share their hope for the American Dream at America-Dreams.com,” Alonso said. “We are extremely proud of the cross-section of voices from across our nation and we want to capture these stories, experiences and perspectives so that people feel included in this historic national conversation.”
Emmy Award-winning producer David McCourt said the project builds on the documentary team’s nationwide reporting.
“As the United States approaches its 250th anniversary, this project asks a simple but powerful question: ‘What is your hope for the American Dream?’” McCourt said. “We want to hear directly from people across the country.”
The campaign arrives at a moment when interactive documentary projects and audience participation are becoming a larger part of public media storytelling. With AMERIGO, the combination of a PBS documentary and a nationwide video submission initiative gives the project a broader cultural footprint than a traditional film release.
Submissions are now open at America-Dreams.com. A trailer for AMERIGO is also available on Vimeo.
For entertainment audiences, the project stands out less as a conventional documentary launch and more as a large-scale invitation to participate in a national media moment ahead of America’s semiquincentennial.
Catch the latest in movies, TV, music, pop culture, and live events in STM Daily News’ Entertainment section.
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Last Updated on April 4, 2026 by Daily News Staff
Few transportation systems in the world are as instantly recognizable as the cable cars of San Francisco. Climbing steep hills with a steady hum and a nostalgic charm, these moving landmarks are more than just a tourist attraction—they’re a triumph of innovation born out of necessity.
🐎 A Problem on the Hills
In the mid-1800s, San Francisco was growing rapidly, but its geography posed a serious challenge. The city’s steep inclines made travel difficult, especially for horse-drawn streetcars, which were the primary form of public transportation at the time.
Horses often struggled to pull heavy loads uphill, and accidents were common. In some cases, animals collapsed under the strain. This dangerous and inefficient system needed a solution.
💡 The Vision of Andrew Hallidie
That solution came from Andrew Smith Hallidie, an engineer and entrepreneur who envisioned a safer, more reliable way to move people through the city.
Hallidie developed a system in which streetcars would be pulled by a continuously moving cable running beneath the street—eliminating the need for horses altogether.
⚙️ The First Cable Car Line
On August 2, 1873, Hallidie launched the world’s first cable car system: the Clay Street Hill Railroad.
This groundbreaking line proved that cable-powered transit could successfully navigate San Francisco’s steep terrain. Instead of relying on animal power, cars used a mechanical grip to latch onto a moving cable underground, allowing them to glide smoothly up and down hills.
The innovation quickly captured public attention—and demand.
🚀 A City Transformed
Following the success of the Clay Street line, cable car systems spread rapidly across San Francisco.
By the late 19th century:
- Dozens of routes crisscrossed the city
- Cable cars became the backbone of urban transportation
- The system helped shape the city’s growth and accessibility
For a time, San Francisco operated the largest and most advanced cable car network in the world.
⚡ The Rise of Electric Streetcars
Despite their success, cable cars faced competition from emerging electric streetcar systems in the early 20th century. Electric trolleys were cheaper to build and operate, and they didn’t require the complex underground cable infrastructure.
The turning point came after the devastating 1906 San Francisco earthquake, which destroyed much of the city—including large portions of the cable car network.
When rebuilding began, many lines were converted to electric systems instead of restoring the older cable technology.
San Francisco’s cable car system, first launched in 1873, remains the last manually operated system of its kind. According to the San Francisco Municipal Transportation Agency (SFMTA) , the system was designed to safely navigate the city’s steep terrain.
The cable cars are now designated as a National Historic Landmark, recognized for their cultural and engineering significance by the National Park Service .
Visitors can explore the history and mechanics of the system at the San Francisco Cable Car Museum , which preserves original equipment and archives.
🛑 Saving a Symbol
By the 1940s, cable cars were on the brink of extinction.
That’s when Friedel Klussmann stepped in. A passionate preservationist, Klussmann led a public campaign to protect the remaining lines from being dismantled.
Her efforts culminated in a successful 1947 voter referendum that ensured the survival of San Francisco’s cable cars—transforming them from everyday transit into a preserved cultural landmark.
🌉 Cable Cars Today
Today, San Francisco’s cable cars are:
- The last manually operated cable car system in the world
- A National Historic Landmark
- One of the most visited attractions in California
Three lines remain in operation:
- Powell–Hyde Line
- Powell–Mason Line
- California Street Line
While they still function as public transit, they now serve as a moving museum—connecting modern riders with the city’s past.
🎯 Why It Matters
San Francisco’s cable cars represent more than a mode of transportation. They tell a story of innovation, resilience, and community action.
From solving a practical problem to becoming a global icon, the cable car system reflects how cities adapt—and how people fight to preserve what makes them unique.
📌 “Now You Know”
San Francisco’s cable cars weren’t built for tourism—they were invented to solve a life-and-death problem on steep city streets. Today, they remain the last system of their kind anywhere in the world.
🔗 External Sources & Related Links
- SFMTA – Cable Cars Overview
- San Francisco Cable Car Museum
- National Park Service – Historic Landmark Info
- Britannica – Cable Car History
- History.com – Invention of Cable Cars
Explore the latest in innovation, AI, gadgets, startups, and digital trends in STM Daily News’ Techsection.
Last Updated on April 7, 2026 by Daily News Staff
🕒 [UPDATE] Artemis II Reaches the Moon
Orion has reached lunar proximity, giving astronauts a historic view of the Moon as the spacecraft performs its flyby maneuver.
Artemis II Successfully Launches
CAPE CANAVERAL, Fla. — NASA has successfully launched its Artemis II mission, marking the first crewed journey toward the Moon in more than 50 years.
The powerful Space Launch System (SLS) rocket lifted off from Kennedy Space Center on April 1, carrying four astronauts on a 10-day mission around the Moon and back.
On board are Commander Reid Wiseman, Pilot Victor Glover, Mission Specialist Christina Koch, and Canadian astronaut Jeremy Hansen. The mission is already being hailed as a major milestone in NASA’s effort to return humans to deep space.
Shortly after liftoff, the Orion spacecraft successfully reached orbit and deployed its solar arrays, beginning its journey that will eventually send the crew on a translunar trajectory toward the Moon. 
Artemis II is a lunar flyby mission, meaning astronauts will not land but will travel farther from Earth than any human mission in decades while testing critical systems needed for future landings.
The mission also marks several historic firsts, including the first woman and the first person of color—Victor Glover—to travel into lunar space.
NASA says the mission is a key step toward future lunar landings and long-term plans to establish a human presence on the Moon later this decade.
🛰️ Artemis II Mission Timeline
The 10-day Artemis II mission follows a carefully planned trajectory from Earth to the Moon and back:
- Day 1: Launch and Earth orbit
- Day 1–2: Translunar injection burn
- Days 2–4: Deep space travel
- Days 4–5: Lunar flyby
- Days 5–8: Return to Earth
- Days 9–10: Reentry and splashdown
For official updates and in-depth mission details, visit the following trusted sources:
- NASA: Artemis II Mission Overview
- NASA Artemis Program (Return to the Moon)
- Orion Spacecraft – Mission Details
- Space Launch System (SLS) Rocket Overview
- Kennedy Space Center – Launch Operations
- Watch NASA Live Coverage and Replays
🧾 Sources
- NASA official launch coverage and mission updates
- NASA Artemis II press materials and briefings
- NASA Kennedy Space Center launch operations updates
Stay with STM Daily News for live updates on Artemis II.
