Credit: Image courtesy of Brookhaven National Laboratory In dense nuclear matter, quarks “line up,” becoming essentially one-dimensional. Calculations considering that single dimension plus time can track how low energy excitations ripple through nuclear matter. « A Simple Solution for Nuclear Matter in Two Dimensions
The Science
Understanding the behavior of nuclear matter—including the quarks and gluons that make up the protons and neutrons of atomic nuclei—is extremely complicated. This is particularly true in our world, which is three dimensional. Mathematical techniques from condensed matter physics that consider interactions in just one spatial dimension (plus time) greatly simplify the challenge. Using this two-dimensional approach, scientists solved the complex equations that describe how low-energy excitations ripple through a system of dense nuclear matter. This work indicates that the center of neutron stars, where such dense nuclear matter exists in nature, may be described by an unexpected form.
The Impact
Being able to understand the quark interactions in two dimensions opens a new window into understanding neutron stars, the densest form of matter in the universe. The approach could help advance the current “golden age” for studying these exotic stars. This surge in research success was triggered by recent discoveries of gravitational waves and electromagnetic emissions in the cosmos. This work shows that for low-energy excitations, all of the complications of the three-dimensional quark interactions fall away. These low-energy excitations are slight disturbances triggered as a neutron star emits radiation or by its own spinning magnetic fields. This approach might also enable new comparisons with quark interactions in less dense but much hotter nuclear matter generated in heavy-ion collisions.
Summary
The modern theory of nuclei, known as quantum chromodynamics, involves quarks bound by the strong nuclear force. This force, carried by gluons, confines quarks into nucleons (protons and neutrons). When the density of nuclear matter increases, as it does inside neutron stars, the dense system behaves more like a mass of quarks, without sharp boundaries between individual nucleons. In this state, quarks at the edge of the system are still confined by the strong force, as quarks on one side of the spherical system interact strongly with quarks on the opposite side.
This work by researchers at Brookhaven National Laboratory uses the one-dimensional nature of this strong interaction, plus the dimension of time, to solve for the behavior of excitations with low energy near the edge of the system. These low energy modes are just like those of a free, massless boson—which is known in condensed matter as a “Luttinger liquid.” This method allows scientists to compute the parameters of a Luttinger liquid at any given density. It will advance their ability to explore qualitatively new phenomena expected to occur at the extreme densities within neutron stars, where nuclear matter behaves quite differently than it does in ordinary nuclei, and compare it with much hotter (trillion-degree) dense nuclear matter generated in heavy-ion collisions.
Funding
This research was funded by the Department of Energy Office of Science.
Why do people get headaches? – Evie V., age 10, Corpus Christi, Texas
Whether sharp and stabbing or dull and throbbing, a headache can ruin your day. But your brain doesn’t actually feel pain. So what is going on when it feels like your head is in a vise or about to explode? I am a child neurologist – that is, a doctor who specializes in diseases of the brain in kids. Most of my patients are kids and adolescents who are struggling with headaches. Head pain is complicated, and there is still a lot to learn about what causes it and how it can be treated. But researchers know there are a few key players that take part in generating pain.
What are headaches?
Nerves communicate information like pain through electrical signals between the body and the brain. While the brain itself doesn’t have any nerve sensors to feel pain, blood vessels in the head and structures that protect and surround the brain do sense pain. When these tissues detect injury or damage, they release chemicals that trigger transmission of electrical signals through nerves to tell the brain the head is hurting. The brain will also use nerves to signal the body to respond to pain with symptoms like feeling tired, teary eyes, runny nose, upset stomach and discomfort in bright or loud environments. It’s not clear why humans evolved to feel these symptoms, but some scientists theorize that this can lead to healthier lifestyle choices to decrease the chance of future headache attacks.Weather changes are one of the most commonly reported migraine triggers. Danielle Wilhour, a neurologist and headache specialist at University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, explains why shifts in weather can bring on migraines — and what you can do to ease the pain.
What causes headaches?
Often, headaches are a sign that the body is under some kind of stress. That stress triggers chemical and physical changes to the nerves and blood vessels around your brain, head and neck that can cause headaches. Many types of stresses can cause headaches, including an infection, allergies, hormone changes during puberty and menstrual cycles, not getting enough sleep, not drinking enough water, skipping meals or drinking too much caffeine or alcohol. Sometimes, headaches happen with emotional stress, like feeling anxious or depressed. Even pressure in your sinuses due to changes in the weather can cause your head to hurt. One in 11 kids have had a type of severe headache called a migraine. They feel like a pulsing and pounding pain in your head and come with other symptoms, including nausea or being sensitive to lights and sounds. During a migraine, it can be hard to do everyday activities because they can make the pain worse. It is also very common to feel unwell or irritable before the head pain starts and after the pain is gone.Migraines and chronic headaches can be debilitating.Viktoriya Skorikova/Moment via Getty Images Migraines occur when the nerves and other structures used in signaling and interpreting pain aren’t working properly, leading to pain and discomfort from stimulation that wouldn’t normally provoke this. There are many environmental and genetic factors that contribute to this dysfunction. Some people are born with a higher risk of developing migraines. Most people with migraines have someone in their family who also experiences them.
What can treat and prevent headaches?
Identifying what type of headache you’re experiencing is crucial to making sure it is treated properly. Because migraines can be severe, they’re the type of headache that most often leads to doctor’s visits for both kids and adults. There are several ways to reduce your chances of having headaches, such as drinking plenty of water and limiting caffeine. Eating, sleeping and exercising regularly are other ways you can help prevent headaches.Sleep deprivation can worsen headaches.DjelicS/iStock via Getty Images Plus While painkillers like ibuprofen are often enough to relieve a headache, prescription medications are sometimes necessary to make head pain more bearable. Some medications can also help control or prevent headache episodes. Physical therapy to exercise the body or behavioral therapy to work on the mind can also help you manage headache pain. There are even electronic devices to treat headaches by stimulating different parts of the nervous system. It is important to talk with a doctor about headaches, especially if it’s a new problem or you experience a change in how they usually feel. Sometimes, brain imaging or blood tests are needed to rule out another health issue. Recognizing a headache problem early will help your doctor get started on helping you figure out the best way to treat it.Hello, curious kids! Do you have a question you’d like an expert to answer? Ask an adult to send your question to CuriousKidsUS@theconversation.com. Please tell us your name, age and the city where you live.And since curiosity has no age limit – adults, let us know what you’re wondering, too. We won’t be able to answer every question, but we will do our best.Katherine Cobb-Pitstick, Assistant Professor of Child Neurology, University of Pittsburgh This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.
Unlikely Collaborators is bringing astrophysicist Dr. Lisa Kaltenegger to Santa Monica for a conversation centered on one of science’s most enduring questions: Are we alone in the universe? The event, part of the organization’s Spark Salon series, took place on March 17 at 7:00 p.m. PT and was offered both in person and via livestream.
Kaltenegger, founding director of the Carl Sagan Institute at Cornell University and a professor of astronomy, is widely recognized for her work on habitable exoplanets and the search for detectable signs of life beyond Earth. Her talk focused not only on the science of planet hunting, but also on the assumptions people bring to questions about life, habitability, and reality itself.
On March 17 at 7 PM PT, Unlikely Collaborators hosts Cornell astronomer and Carl Sagan Institute Founding Director Dr. Lisa Kaltenegger for Spark Salon: Are We Alone in the Universe? Explore the search for life on distant worlds and the deeper question of how our assumptions shape what we recognize as life, reality, and possibility. In person in Santa Monica + livestream.
According to the event announcement, the discussion examined how scientists interpret data from distant worlds and asked broader questions about what counts as life, what makes a planet habitable, and how human perspective can shape discovery. The program also highlighted how the search for life beyond Earth can challenge long-held ideas about what is normal, possible, and even alive.
The evening included a reception, the main program, and a book signing. In-person guests also received a complimentary copy of Kaltenegger’s book, Alien Earths: The New Science for Planet Hunting in the Cosmos.
Unlikely Collaborators, founded by Elizabeth R. Koch, describes itself as a nonprofit focused on helping people better understand themselves and the world through its Perception Box framework. The Spark Salon series regularly brings together researchers, artists, and thought leaders for conversations designed to challenge perspective and encourage reflection.
Dive into “The Knowledge,” where curiosity meets clarity. This playlist, in collaboration with STMDailyNews.com, is designed for viewers who value historical accuracy and insightful learning. Our short videos, ranging from 30 seconds to a minute and a half, make complex subjects easy to grasp in no time. Covering everything from historical events to contemporary processes and entertainment, “The Knowledge” bridges the past with the present. In a world where information is abundant yet often misused, our series aims to guide you through the noise, preserving vital knowledge and truths that shape our lives today. Perfect for curious minds eager to discover the ‘why’ and ‘how’ of everything around us. Subscribe and join in as we explore the facts that matter. https://stmdailynews.com/the-knowledge/
How extraterrestrial tales of aliens gain traction
The narrative explores humanity’s intrigue with extraterrestrial entities, juxtaposing evolutionary processes with claims of alien interventions, ultimately emphasizing the need for scientific evidence over fantastical stories. Aliens!
One night, upon returning to the cave that his tribe calls home, the monkey-humanoid Moon-Watcher finds a strange crystal object, a kind of monolith that fascinates him at first, but then quickly loses his interest when he discovers that it is not edible. Soon after, the true purpose of the monolith is revealed to be none other than penetrating the minds of our ancestors to induce new abilities that, over time, will cause the development of an intelligence capable of creating new technology.
Many readers will recognise this scene from the novel 2001, A Space Odyssey, by Arthur C. Clarke, and the film of the same name, directed by Stanley Kubrick. It almost goes without saying that the crystal monolith in question is the work of an extraterrestrial civilisation that observes life on other planets and “experiments” on them to encourage the development of intelligence in as many parts of the cosmos as possible.
Seeking simple answers to complex questions
Understanding how we, as a species, came to be intelligent is one of the great enigmas of evolutionary study. Small mutations, followed by a process of natural selection to choose the most advantageous, seems too slow a process for structures as complex as the human nervous system or brain to emerge. It is this very complexity that allows millions of neurons to communicate with each other, resulting in the emergence of qualities such as the ability to respond voluntarily to environmental stimuli, or to ask questions about the very nature of humankind and the universe.
This has always been the case, in all human cultures. A classic example would be attributing atmospheric events – thunder, lightning, floods – to the wrath of God. These ideas came about before humans had ever left the ground, so it is no surprise that we turned our eyes even higher – to extraterrestrials – to explain other phenomena that we could only observe once travelling at high altitudes became part of our daily lives.
The allure of the unknown
The possibility that we might have been visited by beings from other worlds has always fascinated us. The element of mystery, of the unknown, only makes it more interesting.
Any phenomenon is made all the more enticing when it seems it is being covered up or hidden for secretive reasons. The attractiveness of conspiracies often leads people towards ideas which have no scientific basis, such as the belief that the Earth is flat, that humans never set foot on the Moon, or that vaccines can control our behaviour.
Even though these ideas have repeatedly been shown to be untrue, their rapid dissemination through social media, using simple, blunt language that appeals to emotion over logic, makes them very powerful weapons.
The supposed “proof” of alien visits to our planet ranges from specific Bible passages to ancient stone carvings portraying creatures or objects that may appear to be aliens or spacecraft. The latter often take the form of flying saucers.
However, we cannot forget that humans have always created imaginary creatures that resemble them and attributed them with magical powers. When imagining Gods, humans have given them a human appearance, and almost always imagined them as living in the sky.
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When we look at these representations through modern eyes, we associate them with extraterrestrial beings or structures, when in fact they could be referring to a range of different things.
What we can be certain of is that the more we explore our skies, the more likely it is that we will encounter phenomena that we cannot explain. However, this does not mean that they are extraterrestrial. Past experience has shown us that most of these events can be attributed to optical illusions, spy or weather balloons, space junk, or even satellites that we ourselves have made.
In Spain, UFOs were a hot topic between the 1960s and the 1980s. In this era, everyone knew someone who was convinced that they had seen a UFO. This even reached the point where an exoplanet, called Ummo, was made up. It was populated by a more advanced civilisation than ours who made contact with people on Earth. In the letters these aliens supposedly sent, the ‘Ummites’ explained concepts such as genetics and cell structure.
The Ummo hoax was even linked to the creation of a paedophile ring, which should make us reflect on the harmful consequences that the spread of fabricated news stories can have.
Can we deny the possibility that intelligent alien civilisations exist?
The answer, of course, is no. The universe is immense, and it is more than likely that circumstances similar to those which led to the appearance of life on Earth have been repeated on other planets. But there is a huge distance (literally and figuratively) between acknowledging the existence of these creatures and considering the possibility that they might have visited us.
Exoplanets, also known as extrasolar planets, are extremely far away, and we are limited by the speed of light which, as proven by Einstein, is the maximum possible speed at which anything can travel. Therefore, the journey to even a “nearby” exoplanet would take thousands of years. Maybe a civilisation more advanced than ours could find a way to do it faster, but not to the point of it being something easy or commonplace.
In any case, if the remains of alien life or spacecraft are stored away somewhere, why are they not being shown to us? Scientists would jump at the chance to analyse this organic matter to find out how it is structured, how it metabolises energy, or what molecules it uses to store genetic information.
Until there is proof, this is not a question of science, but rather, of stories. Stories can be very entertaining, but these kinds of stories do not help us to build a more accurate or helpful view of the world.
The science section of our news blog STM Daily News provides readers with captivating and up-to-date information on the latest scientific discoveries, breakthroughs, and innovations across various fields. We offer engaging and accessible content, ensuring that readers with different levels of scientific knowledge can stay informed. Whether it’s exploring advancements in medicine, astronomy, technology, or environmental sciences, our science section strives to shed light on the intriguing world of scientific exploration and its profound impact on our daily lives. From thought-provoking articles to informative interviews with experts in the field, STM Daily News Science offers a harmonious blend of factual reporting, analysis, and exploration, making it a go-to source for science enthusiasts and curious minds alike. https://stmdailynews.com/category/science/
