health and wellness
Cannabis Legalization Drives Innovation, Raises Health Concerns
Cannabis legalization is driving innovation, but much of it focuses on commercial products rather than patient health. New research highlights gaps between market growth and medical evidence.
Lucy Xiaolu Wang, UMass Amherst and Nathan W. Chan, UMass Amherst
Cannabis legalization
Innovation in health care saves lives. But not all health innovations have enough evidence to actually benefit patients.
Barriers to innovation are often higher in illicit or restricted markets, including cannabis, stem cells and cryptocurrencies. Researchers face higher costs, limited access to raw materials and data, and stricter regulations.
Cannabis illustrates a particularly confusing tension between regulatory restrictions on one hand and research and innovation on the other.
While the U.S. federal government still classifies cannabis as having “no accepted medical use,” many states have legalized it for medical or recreational use. Meanwhile, the Department of Health and Human Services obtained a cannabis-related patent in 2003 covering potential medical uses of cannabis compounds for protecting the brain from damage or degeneration. The patent was exclusively licensed for commercialization.
Research and innovation on cannabis can take many forms. Clinical trials may study cannabis products as medical treatments, the effects of cannabis on its users, or factors related to abuse and dependence. Meanwhile, cannabis-related patents can be filed for wide-ranging purposes, such as chemical formulations, methods for production or new consumer products like edibles, beverages or vaporizers.
But do these innovations actually benefit consumers and patients?
We are economists studying how institutional changes affect innovation in different markets. Our recently published research found that legalization of recreational cannabis use appears to spur innovation, but primarily in ways that expand commercial opportunities rather than scientific understanding or health benefits for patients.
Cannabis’ evolving legality in the US
Cannabis is a plant that contains chemical compounds called cannabinoids. One such compound, tetrahydrocannabinol, or THC, produces psychoactive effects, while another compound called cannabidiol, or CBD, is often used to relieve anxiety and pain. However, there has been insufficient evidence on how effective cannabis products are in treating medical conditions, as well as a lack of consistent medical and dosing guidance.
At the federal level in the U.S., cannabis has been classified as a Schedule I drug for over a half-century. This classification indicates that the federal government considers cannabis to have a high potential for abuse and no accepted medical use.
As a Schedule I drug, there are significant restrictions on cannabis research. Researchers who seek to conduct cannabis-related clinical trials must obtain approval from both the Food and Drug Administration and the Drug Enforcement Administration, a process that can take over a year. They are also limited to using select varieties of cannabis obtained from federally authorized cannabis suppliers, and are generally prohibited from studying products available in state-authorized markets.
There are ongoing pushes to relax these restrictions. Meanwhile, cannabis has been legalized to varying extents in many states. California became the first state to pass a medical cannabis law in 1996, allowing qualified patients to grow, possess and use cannabis for medical purposes. Many states followed suit in the late 1990s and early 2000s. As of June 2025, 40 states allow medical cannabis use.
A number of states also allow recreational or nonmedical cannabis use among adults, which is regulated in similar ways to alcohol. Colorado and Washington enacted the first recreational cannabis laws in 2012, and there are 24 states that permit adults to use cannabis recreationally as of January 2026.
Altogether, the legal landscape for cannabis in the U.S. has varied considerably across states and over time. States with more permissive laws can lower the costs of medical research and product development with cannabis, even if federal drug scheduling continues to restrict access. For instance, one group of Washington State University researchers asked participants to independently purchase and smoke cannabis from a legal dispensary before returning to their lab for study.
State legalization and cannabis innovation
To systematically examine how state legalization affects cannabis-related innovation, we compiled and analyzed datasets tracking cannabis-related clinical trials and patent applications.
We distinguished different types of cannabis-related innovation. Specifically, we categorized cannabis-related clinical trials based on whether they focused on its potential as a treatment, its usage and effects, or its role in drug abuse. Similarly, we categorized cannabis-related patents based on whether they focused on chemical compounds, medical uses, methods or products.
We also assessed public health concerns across three measures: patents explicitly involving THC; patents with a high risk of misuse; and patents targeting consumers directly, such as high-potency formulations, edibles or vaporizers.
Then, we compared changes in cannabis-related innovation over time in states that legalized cannabis earlier with those in states that did so later or not at all. We measured innovation by counting the number of cannabis-related clinical trials and patent filings. We distinguished between medical and recreational legalization to assess how different policies affect innovation.
Overall, we found that when states legalize cannabis for recreational use, cannabis-related patents increase – but mostly in commercial-oriented areas rather than health-focused ones. Patents were concentrated in market-oriented innovations like cultivation equipment and consumer products, rather than in clinical or science-based research. We also found some evidence that these innovations may raise public health concerns.
Legalization did not result in meaningful increases in clinical trials. This suggests that barriers to cannabis-related clinical research – such as limited access to research-grade cannabis, limited funding and stigma around working with a federally controlled substance – remain substantial.
Gaps between research and product
As 420 – signifying April 20, a day celebrating cannabis culture – approaches each year, public attention turns toward the legal status of cannabis.
The legal landscape has evolved rapidly over the past few decades, and further changes are in the pipeline. Both the Biden and second Trump administrations have made efforts to reclassify cannabis as a Schedule III substance, which would indicate that it has an accepted medical use and low-to-moderate potential for dependence.
These reevaluations of the legality of cannabis come at a critical time. There has been an explosion of recreational cannabis products in recent years, including increasingly potent strains and a wider variety of ways to use cannabis. Meanwhile, critical research on the health and safety of cannabis use has lagged due to heavy restrictions accompanying Schedule I status.
This gap between medical research and product innovation can have significant public health consequences. The 2019 to 2020 outbreak of lung injuries related to e-cigarette or vape use was linked partly to the use of unregulated or illicit cannabis vaping products. These harms highlight the risks of allowing product innovation for controlled substances to outpace scientific understanding.
Policies that significantly reduce obstacles to clinical research can in turn help close the widening gap between cannabis markets and addressing their public health implications.
Lucy Xiaolu Wang, Assistant Professor of Resource Economics, UMass Amherst and Nathan W. Chan, Professor of Resource Economics, UMass Amherst
This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.
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home improvement
Fresh Start, Fresh Planet: 5 Steps to Reduce Waste During Spring Cleaning
Spring cleaning is a perfect opportunity to reset, reorganize and make small changes that can help the planet. Consider these five easy waste-reduction tips to help you jump into the season feeling organized and eco-friendly.
(Feature Impact) As the days get longer and the weather improves, many people often find the motivation to refresh their homes – and their habits.
Spring cleaning is a perfect opportunity to reset, reorganize and make small changes that can help the planet. What’s more, these changes are simple to implement and can even earn you some extra cash.
Steps to Reduce Waste During Spring Cleaning
Consider these five easy waste-reduction tips from the experts at CalRecycle to help you jump into the season feeling organized and eco-friendly.
1. Recycle Kitchen Waste
As you clear out expired or forgotten food, sort items for maximum impact:
- Remove plastic and non-compostable packaging and put spoiled or freezer-burned food into your green bin. These scraps can be turned into compost and clean energy, helping cut methane emissions from landfills.
- Toss empty, dry recyclables, including condiment bottles, glass jars, metal cans and plastic food containers, into your blue bin.
2. Cash in Empty Beverage Containers
- Cleaning out your home may uncover some empty or forgotten beverage containers. Empty out leftover liquids and take eligible beverage containers for soda, water, juice, wine and distilled spirits to your nearest recycling site for cash back. Every California Redemption Value (CRV) beverage container you recycle saves resources and puts money back in your pocket.
- If you’re short on time, donate your empty CRV beverage containers to your favorite nonprofit organization. Set up a separate bin just for eligible beverage containers and drop them off for donation when it’s full.
3. Give Clothes and Household Items a Second Life
- Dig into your closets and shelves to see what you can repair, repurpose or donate. Fix a missing button, turn old fabric into cleaning rags or give gently used items to a local free-exchange group or thrift store to reduce textile waste. Simple steps like these can keep usable items out of the landfill and help someone else put them to good use.
4. Declutter Paper and Electronics
- Recycle junk mail, magazines and newspapers in your blue bin. Remove any plastic windows, wrap or stickers first. If you shred documents, place the shredded paper inside a paper bag before recycling. Bonus tip: Switching to digital statements and bills can help prevent paper clutter in the first place.
- Old electronics and used batteries don’t belong in the trash. Gather them from drawers and cabinets then take them to an e-waste drop-off site or local household hazardous waste collection center for safe handling.
5. Refresh the Bathroom
- When restocking soaps or cleaners, look for products that offer refillable containers (especially reusable glass and aluminum ones). It’s a simple way to cut down on plastic waste.
- When you finish bottles of shampoo, conditioner, soap or cleaning sprays, make sure they land in your recycling bin after you empty them out.
- Swap out single-use paper towels for washable cloths or rags. They’re reusable, durable and kinder to the environment.
For more details, CRV redemption locations and food scrap recycling tips, visit RecyclingReimaginedCA.com.
Photos courtesy of Shutterstock
SOURCE:
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The Knowledge
Mosquitoes carrying malaria are evolving more quickly than insecticides can kill them – researchers pinpoint how
Jacob A Tennessen, Harvard University
The fight against infectious disease is a race against evolution. Bacteria become resistant to antibiotics. Viruses adapt to spread more quickly. Diseases transmitted by insects present another evolutionary front: Insects themselves can evolve resistance to the poisons that people use to kill them.
In particular, the mosquito-borne disease malaria kills over 600,000 people annually. Since World War II, people have battled malaria with insecticides – chemical weapons intended to kill Anopheles mosquitoes infected with the Plasmodium parasites that cause the disease.
However, mosquitoes are quickly evolving counterstrategies that make these insecticides ineffective, putting millions of people at greater risk of deadly infection. My colleagues and I have newly published research showing how.
Insecticide resistance threatens public health
As an evolutionary geneticist, I study natural selection – the basis for adaptive evolution. Genetic variants that best promote survival can replace less advantageous versions, causing species to change. Anopheles mosquitoes are frustratingly adept at evolving.
In the mid-1990s, most African Anopheles were susceptible to pyrethroids, a popular type of insecticide originally derived from chrysanthemums. Anopheles control relies on two pyrethroid-based methods: insecticide-treated bed nets to protect sleepers, and indoor residual spraying of insecticide against the walls of homes. These two methods alone likely prevented over a half-billion cases of malaria between 2000 and 2015.
However, mosquitoes today from Ghana to Malawi are often able to survive insecticide concentrations 10 times the previously lethal dose. Along with Anopheles control efforts, agriculture also inadvertently exposes mosquitoes to pyrethroids and contributes to insecticide resistance.
In some African locales, Anopheles is already showing resistance to all four main classes of insecticide used for malaria control.
Adaptation in Latin American mosquitoes
Anopheles mosquitoes and the malaria-causing Plasmodium also occur outside Africa, where insecticide resistance is less well-researched.
In much of South America, the main malaria vector is Anopheles darlingi. This mosquito species has diverged evolutionarily from the African vectors so extensively that it might be a different genus, Nyssorhynchus. Along with colleagues from eight countries, I analyzed over 1,000 Anopheles darlingi genomes to understand its genetic diversity, including any recent changes due to human activity. My collaborators collected these mosquitoes at 16 locations ranging from the Atlantic coast of Brazil to the Pacific side of the Andes in Colombia.
We found that, like its African counterparts, Anopheles darlingi shows extremely high genetic diversity – more than 20 times that of humans – indicating that very large populations of this insect exist. A species with such a vast gene pool is well poised to adapt to new challenges. The right mutation giving it the advantage it needs is more likely to pop up when there are so many individuals. And once that mutation starts to spread, it’s protected by numbers since it won’t be wiped out if a few mosquitoes die by chance.
In contrast, bald eagles in the contiguous U.S. were never able to evolve resistance against the insecticide DDT and approached extinction. Evolution is more efficient among millions of insects than mere thousands of birds. And indeed, we saw signals of adaptive evolution in the resistance-related genes of Anopheles darlingi occurring over the past few decades.
Mosquitoes evolve to detoxify poisons
Insecticides like pyrethroids and DDT share the same molecular target: channels in nerve cells that can open and close. When open, the nerve cell stimulates other cells. These insecticides force the channels to remain open and continuously fire, causing paralysis and death. However, insects can evolve resistance by changing the shape of the channel itself.
Earlier genetic scans performed by other researchers had not detected this type of resistance in Anopheles darlingi, and neither did ours. Instead, we found that resistance is evolving in another way: a group of genes encoding enzymes that break down toxic compounds. High activity of these enzymes, called P450, frequently underlies resistance to insecticides in other mosquitoes. The same cluster of P450 genes has changed independently at least seven times across South America since insecticide use began in the mid-20th century.
In French Guiana, a different set of P450 genes exhibits a similar evolutionary pattern, cementing the clear connection between these enzymes and adaptation. Moreover, when we exposed mosquitoes to pyrethroids in sealed bottles, differences among the P450 genes of individual mosquitoes were linked to the length of time they stayed alive.
Insecticide-heavy campaigns against malaria have been only sporadic in South America and may not be the main driver behind this evolution. Instead, it’s possible that mosquitoes are being exposed indirectly to agricultural insecticides. Intriguingly, we saw the strongest signs of evolution in places where farming is prevalent.
Toward more sophisticated vector control
Despite new vaccines and other recent advances against malaria, mosquito control remains essential for reducing disease.
Some countries are launching trials of gene drives to control malaria, which involve forcing a genetic modification into a mosquito population to reduce their numbers or their tolerance for Plasmodium. Such prospects are exciting, though the relentless adaptability of mosquitoes could be an obstacle.
I and others are revising methods to efficiently test for emerging insecticide resistance. Genome-scale sequencing remains important to detect new or unexpected evolutionary responses. The risk of adaptation is highest under a continuous, strong selection pressure, so minimizing, switching and staggering pesticides can help thwart resistance.
Success in the fight against evolving resistance will require a coordinated effort of monitoring, and reacting accordingly. Unlike evolution, humans can think ahead.
Jacob A Tennessen, Research Scientist in Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard University
This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.
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(Feature Impact) Roughly 1 in 8 American adults take GLP-1 medications for diabetes or weight loss and the number continues growing, according to a recent KFF Health poll. People considering these drugs understandably have many questions, ranging from which GLP-1 would be best, what side effects might they experience and whether their insurance will cover it.
The health care professional who prescribes GLP-1s is a key source of information, but another vital partner is the medication expert on your health care team: your pharmacist.
“GLP-1s are more complicated than your typical antibiotic or medicines like cholesterol drugs, and they require particular expertise to manage effectively,” said Martin Torres, PharmD, director of pharmacy, University of California, Irvine. “With their medication management expertise, pharmacists are particularly equipped to counsel people on GLP-1s. Our guidance can help people maximize benefits and minimize the risks.”
GLP-1s are intended to be taken long-term, so it’s helpful to consult with the pharmacist at your medical center or clinic. The health-system pharmacists who work collaboratively with doctors in these settings can serve as ongoing guides on your GLP-1 journey.
Here are three ways they can support you.
Managing Costs
Health-system pharmacists are an important resource for helping figure out how to pay for your medications. If you have insurance, they can help determine which GLP-1s your plan covers and which will suit you best.
If your plan doesn’t cover these drugs or you lack insurance, pharmacists can help you find alternative payment options, such as a drug-maker coupon or medication-support program.
Effective and Safe Usage
Figuring out the optimal dose and frequency for each patient typically takes time. Many people also experience side effects. Pharmacists can help you manage the risks and maximize the effectiveness of your GLP-1 in several ways.
- They’re experts in flagging potential harmful interactions between GLP-1s and other medications or supplements you’re taking.
- They can work with you to cope with or lessen side effects such as nausea, reflux and constipation.
- They can advocate to your doctor for increasing or decreasing your dose to get you to the safest effective amount and coordinate any other needed medication changes.
- They can teach you how to administer your medication properly to avoid waste.
Lifestyle Changes
Health-system pharmacists are also resources for lifestyle counseling to make the most of your GLP-1. There’s a common misconception that GLP-1s simply melt away fat. Rather, by reducing cravings, they help people eat less – and that can open the door to developing healthier eating and activity habits.
Pharmacists can provide a wealth of information on the effects of lifestyle modifications. The strategies for healthy eating and physical activity they share can help make these a routine part of your life for long-term success.
To learn more about how health-system pharmacists can impact your overall health, visit yourpharmacist.org.
Discontinuing a GLP-1: How Your Pharmacist Can Smooth the Transition
At least half the people who start GLP-1s will stop within the first year. High costs, insurance issues and side effects are among the reasons people discontinue use. If you anticipate stopping your GLP-1, your health-system pharmacist can help smooth the transition.
A pharmacist’s extensive knowledge of medications is valuable not only for starting but also for stopping GLP-1s. They can help by:
- Determining whether a different GLP-1 or a more affordable source for the drug is right for you
- Helping people understand the source of side effects and how to lessen and manage them
- Providing advice on alternative medicines that may help patients reach their goals
- Guiding people on tapering their doses to avoid a hard stop
SOURCE:
American Society of Health-System Pharmacists
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