Annalisa Bracco, Georgia Institute of Technology and Zachary Handlos, Georgia Institute of Technology

The North Atlantic Ocean has been running a fever for months, with surface temperatures at or near record highs. But cooling along the equator in both the Atlantic and eastern Pacific may finally be starting to bring some relief, particularly for vulnerable coral reef ecosystems.

This cooling is related to two climate phenomena with similar names: La Niña, which forms in the tropical Pacific, and the less well-known Atlantic Niña.

Both can affect the Atlantic hurricane season. While La Niña tends to bring conditions ideal for Atlantic hurricanes, the less powerful Atlantic Niña has the potential to reduce some of the hurricane risk.

We’re ocean and atmospheric scientists who study this type of climate phenomenon. It’s rare to see both Niñas at the same time, yet in August 2024, both appeared to be developing. Let’s take a closer look at what that means.

La Niña and its cousin, Atlantic Niña

La Niña is part of the El Niño–Southern Oscillation, a well-known climate phenomenon that has widespread effects on climate and weather around the world.

During La Niña, sea surface temperatures in the tropical Pacific dip below normal. Easterly trade winds then strengthen, allowing more cool water to well up along the equator off South America. That cooling affects the atmosphere in ways that reverberate across the planet. Some areas become stormier and others drier during La Niña, and the wind shear that can tear apart Atlantic hurricanes tends to weaken.

La Niña and its warmer opposite, El Niño, oscillate every three to four years or so. https://www.youtube.com/embed/wVlfyhs64IY?wmode=transparent&start=0 La Niña and its opposite, El Niño, explained. NOAA.

A similar climate phenomenon, Atlantic Niña, occurs in the Atlantic Ocean but at a much smaller scale and amplitude. It typically peaks around July or August and tends to have a shorter duration than its Pacific cousin, and much more modest and local impacts. Atlantic Niñas generally have the opposite effect of Atlantic Niños, which tend to reduce rainfall over Africa’s Sahel region and increase rainfall in Brazil and the countries that surround the Gulf of Guinea, such as Ghana, Nigeria and Cameroon.

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While much weaker than their Pacific counterpart, Atlantic Niñas can, however, partially counteract La Niñas by weakening summer winds that help drive the upwelling that cools the eastern Pacific.

Why might both happen now?

In July and August 2024, meteorologists noted cooling that suggested an Atlantic Niña might be developing along the equator. The winds at the ocean surface had been weak through most of the summer, and sea surface temperatures there were quite warm until early June, so signs an Atlantic Niña might be emerging were a surprise.

At the same time, waters along the equator in the eastern Pacific were also cooling, with La Niña conditions expected there around October or November.

Getting a Pacific-Atlantic Niña combination is rare but not impossible. It’s like finding two different pendulums that are weakly coupled to swing in opposite directions moving together in time. The combinations of La Niña and Atlantic Niño, or El Niño and Atlantic Niña are more common.

Good news or bad for hurricane season?

An Atlantic Niña may initially suggest good news for those living in hurricane-prone areas.

Cooler than average waters off the coast of Africa can suppress the formation of African easterly waves. These are clusters of thunderstorm activity that can form into tropical disturbances and eventually tropical storms or hurricanes.

Tropical storms draw energy from the process of evaporating water associated with warm sea surface temperatures. So, cooling in the tropical Atlantic could weaken this process. That would leave less energy for thunderstorms, which would reduce the probability of a tropical cyclone forming.

However, NOAA takes all factors into account when it updates its Atlantic hurricane season outlook, released in early August, and it still anticipates an extremely active 2024 season. Tropical storm season typically peaks in early to mid-September.

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Two reasons are behind the busy forecast: The near record-breaking warm sea surface temperatures in much of the North Atlantic can strengthen hurricanes. And the expected development of a La Niña in the Pacific tends to weaken wind shear – the change in wind speed with height that can tear apart hurricanes. La Niña’s much stronger effects can override any impacts associated with the Atlantic Niña.

Exacerbating the problem: Global warming

The past two years have seen exceptionally high ocean temperatures in the Atlantic and around much of the world’s oceans. The two Niñas are likely to contribute some cooling relief for certain regions, but it may not last long.

In addition to these cycles, the global warming trend caused by rising greenhouse gas emissions is raising the baseline temperatures and can fuel major hurricanes.

Annalisa Bracco, Professor of Ocean and Climate Dynamics, Georgia Institute of Technology and Zachary Handlos, Atmospheric Science Educator, Georgia Institute of Technology

This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.

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Rebecca Senf, University of Arizona

Louis Carlos Bernal, a Chicano photographer born in the Arizona border town of Douglas in 1941, invented a style of art photography that honored his Mexican American culture. In the process, he created an indelible record of life in Southwestern barrios – low-income, primarily Spanish-speaking neighborhoods – in the 1970s and 1980s.

He died tragically in 1993 when he was just 52 years old. With his photographs in only a few museum collections, his legacy received little attention over the past three decades. Now, his powerful images are reaching new audiences through a bilingual book and exhibition of 120 photographs.

As chief curator of the Center for Creative Photography at the University of Arizona, I’ve been working with Bernal’s photographs over the past decade. In 2014, his family donated his photographs, negatives, contact sheets, working materials and memorabilia, which allowed us to establish the Louis Carlos Bernal Archive at the center.

The exhibition, which runs from Sept. 14, 2024, to March 15, 2025, will feature the portraits of everyday Mexican Americans from his most famous series of photographs, “Barrios.” And thanks to the work of photography scholar Elizabeth Ferrer, we’ve learned even more about Bernal’s artistic technique, process and goals.

Capturing ‘Chicanismo’

As a child, Bernal was given a camera and became captivated by making photographs. He enrolled at Arizona State University thinking he would become a Spanish teacher, but his fascination with photography won out.

Bernal pursued various projects as he deepened his exploration of photography. He created collages featuring iconic images of former president John F. Kennedy, who, as the first Catholic president, was particularly revered in the Mexican American community. Responding to the Watergate hearings, and interested in the impact of media on public perception, he worked on a series in which he instructed family members to hold a life-size mask of Richard M. Nixon up to their faces. Emulating the work of one of his mentors, visual artist Frederick Sommer, he made abstract images using sculptural cut paper.

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Ultimately these experiments gave way to a rich and sustained project of photographing Mexican Americans and their homes.

In doing so, he turned his neighbors, relatives and other Chicanos living in the Southwest into his artistic subjects. Together, the images convey Bernal’s goal of expressing his Mexican American pride, known as “Chicanismo.”

In this way, he was a part of the Chicano art movement, which sought to address the political and cultural concerns of the Mexican American community. Chicano artists highlighted issues such as labor exploitation, immigration, gender roles and racial discrimination. Their goal was to upend stereotypes about Mexican Americans, critique the status quo and cultivate a shared cultural identity.

‘Art of and for the people’

Bernal’s photographs might remind some viewers of snapshots found in a family album, and they do share many qualities with family photographs: They feature people in everyday settings; the subjects are often centered, posing naturally and appearing relaxed; and he preferred color photography, which, by the 1970s, had become a popular way to document birthday parties, holidays and other family milestones.

Bernal, however, gave a lot of thought to the elements in each photograph. He had a process for making pictures just as he envisioned them.

Throughout the many photographs he took inside homes and businesses, and of gatherings of relatives and friends, he deliberately highlighted personal possessions: framed family photographs, altars, posters, religious icons, textiles, and floral and seasonal decorations. Beyond the people in the images, he wanted to convey themes of family, spirituality, home and community.

In a 1982 video interview, Bernal described his process, and how he would “(work) things out in advance in my head before going out.”

This allowed him to work quickly when he was in someone’s home, minimizing the imposition his presence might cause. He also liked to photograph variations of the same setting – for instance, a room with and without family members, or a scene in both color and black and white. Later, he reviewed all the options, selecting the best from a group of images with subtle differences.

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In this way, he was able to create photographs from the world around him based on his deep familiarity with Chicano life and culture. These images introduced a way of life to people beyond the barrios. But they held up a mirror for other Mexican Americans, who could easily recognize the scenes.

“The Chicano artist cannot isolate himself from the community,” Bernal said in 1984, “but finds himself in the midst of his people creating art of and for the people.”

Elevating the everyday

Bernal’s process can be seen in a pair of typical portraits.

In “6th Street Barrio, Douglas, Arizona, 1979,” Bernal photographs a young boy in the living room of his family’s home.

The boy represents one point of a triangular composition. A dark brown, upholstered couch acts as the other, while family photographs high on the yellow wall form the apex. Bernal situated himself across from the corner of the room, where a small end table covered with the family’s possessions sat.

The triangular arrangement of the photograph’s key elements – and the symmetry of the vertical line formed by the room’s corner at center – gives the image balance, stability and permanence, reflecting the way family and home serve as an anchor for the Chicano community.

In “Leon Speer’s Barber Shop, Felix Valdivezo & Daughter Patricia, Lordsburg, New Mexico, 1978,” Bernal places the wall of the barbershop parallel to his lens. This choice creates an organized, composed and easily understood environment in which to make a photograph of the barber, the customer and the customer’s daughter.

Through this perspective – and with some help from a row of mirrors and lights – Bernal captures a little world in its entirety, from the tiled floor reflecting sunlight to the collection of items on a shelf below the pressed-tin ceiling. In doing so, Bernal elevates an ordinary place and everyday people as something special to behold. Instead of the spontaneous and candid qualities you might expect from the casual documentation of, say, a child’s first haircut, Bernal has used a deliberate and formal approach, rendering a familiar subject art-worthy.

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Bernal’s legacy

Bernal was building this incredible document of contemporary Mexican American culture when his life was cut short.

He had built the photography program at Pima Community College, in Tucson, Arizona, and his photography practice was thriving. But in 1989, as he was biking to work, he was struck by a car. He spent the next four years in a coma, passing away on his birthday in 1993, at age 52.

Although he had achieved acclaim in the U.S., his career was more acknowledged in Mexico, where he had developed a strong community and thriving professional network. Following his death, his work was not widely circulated in the U.S.

With the establishment of his archive, the publication of “Louis Carlos Bernal: Monografía,” and the opening of a large exhibition celebrating his work, I hope his Chicano pride and artistic vision will be introduced to a new generation of viewers, cementing his legacy in the history of American art.

Rebecca Senf, Chief Curator, Center for Creative Photography, University of Arizona

This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.

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The Polaris Dawn mission has etched its name in the annals of space history, marking a significant milestone in human spaceflight. After a groundbreaking five-day journey, the SpaceX Crew Dragon capsule, carrying a crew of four astronauts, splashed down safely in the Gulf of Mexico at 3:37 a.m. ET on Sunday. This mission not only showcased the capabilities of commercial space travel but also achieved several remarkable feats, including the world’s first commercial spacewalk.

A Historic Splashdown

The Crew Dragon capsule landed off the coast of Dry Tortugas, Florida, concluding a mission that saw its crew reach unprecedented heights. Polaris Dawn achieved an orbital altitude of 870 miles (1,400 kilometers), the highest ever reached by humans since the Apollo program, surpassing the previous record set by NASA’s Gemini 11 mission in 1966, which reached 853 miles (1,373 kilometers).

Upon re-entry, the spacecraft faced extreme temperatures of up to 3,500 degrees Fahrenheit (1,900 degrees Celsius) due to the pressures and friction of traveling at 17,000 miles per hour (27,000 kilometers per hour). However, the Crew Dragon’s advanced heat shield ensured the astronauts remained safe and comfortable throughout the descent. Once the capsule hit the water, it bobbed momentarily before rescue crews aboard a vessel dubbed the “Dragon’s Nest” retrieved it, completing a meticulous safety check before the crew disembarked.

Groundbreaking Achievements

The Polaris Dawn crew consisted of mission commander Jared Isaacman, a billionaire entrepreneur and CEO of Shift4 Payments; former US Air Force pilot Scott “Kidd” Poteet; and SpaceX operations engineers Anna Menon and Sarah Gillis. This mission was the first of three planned in the Polaris program, intended to push the boundaries of human spaceflight.

One of the most significant highlights of the mission was the first-ever commercial spacewalk. Conducted on the third day, both Isaacman and Gillis exited the spacecraft in a groundbreaking extravehicular activity (EVA). With the absence of an airlock in the Crew Dragon, the entire cabin was depressurized, exposing all four crew members to the vacuum of space. Gillis, at just 30 years old, became the youngest person to participate in a spacewalk, while the mission set a new record for the number of individuals simultaneously exposed to space, totaling four.

Scientific Exploration

The Polaris Dawn mission also focused on scientific research, particularly studying the effects of space radiation on the human body. By flying through parts of the Van Allen radiation belt, the crew aimed to gather valuable data that could inform future long-duration space missions, including potential journeys to Mars.

The mission kicked off with a rigorous pre-breathing protocol to reduce nitrogen levels in the crew’s bodies, mitigating the risk of decompression sickness during the planned spacewalk. Over the course of the mission, the cabin pressure was gradually decreased from 14.5 to 8.6 pounds per square inch, while oxygen levels were increased to prepare for the EVA.

Breaking Barriers for Women in Space

Notably, Menon and Gillis broke records by flying further from Earth than any women before them. Their participation in this historic mission highlights the increasing role of women in space exploration, paving the way for future generations of female astronauts.

The Polaris Dawn mission represents a pivotal moment in commercial spaceflight, illustrating the potential of private companies to lead the way in exploring new frontiers. As SpaceX continues to innovate and push the boundaries of what is possible, the accomplishments of the Polaris Dawn crew serve as a reminder of humanity’s enduring quest to explore the cosmos.

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Conclusion

The Polaris Dawn mission has set the stage for a new era in space exploration, showcasing the capabilities of commercial ventures and the resilience of the human spirit. As we look forward to the upcoming missions in the Polaris program, the accomplishments of this crew will undoubtedly inspire future explorers to reach for the stars.

https://www.cnn.com/2024/09/15/science/spacex-polaris-dawn-splashdown-landing/index.html

Sources: Polaris Dawn, SpaceX, Wikipedia, CNN

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