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Property and sovereignty in space − as countries and companies take to the stars, they could run into disputes
Wayne N White Jr, Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University
Private citizens and companies may one day begin to permanently settle outer space and celestial bodies. But if we don’t enact governing laws in the meantime, space settlers may face legal chaos.
Many wars on Earth start over territorial disputes. In order to avoid such disputes in outer space, nations should consider enacting national laws that specify the extent of each settler’s authority in outer space and provide a process to resolve conflicts.
I have been researching and writing about space law for over 40 years. Through my work, I’ve studied ways to avoid war and resolve disputes in space.
Property in space
Space is an international area, and companies and individuals are free to land their space objects – including satellites, human-crewed and robotic spacecraft and human-inhabited facilities – on celestial bodies and conduct operations anywhere they please. This includes both outer space and celestial bodies such as the Moon.
The 1967 Outer Space Treaty prohibits territorial claims in outer space and on celestial bodies in order to avoid disputes. But without national laws governing space settlers, a nation might attempt to protect its citizens’ and companies’ interests by withdrawing from the treaty. They could then claim the territory where its citizens have placed their space objects.
Nations enforce territorial claims through military force, which would likely cost money and lives. An alternative to territorial claims, which I’ve been investigating and have come to prefer, would be to enact real property rights that are consistent with the Outer Space Treaty.
Territorial claims can be asserted only by national governments, while property rights apply to private citizens, companies and national governments that own property. A property rights law could specify how much authority settlers have and protect their investments in outer space and on celestial bodies.
The Outer Space Treaty
In 1967, the Outer Space Treaty went into effect. As of January 2025, 115 countries are party to this treaty, including the United States and most nations that have a space program. https://www.youtube.com/embed/NUCZt5OcszY?wmode=transparent&start=0 The Outer Space Treaty is the main international agreement governing outer space. However, it is not self-executing.
The Outer Space Treaty outlines principles for the peaceful exploration and use of outer space and celestial bodies. However, the treaty does not specify how it will apply to the citizens and companies of nations that are parties to the treaty.
For this reason, the Outer Space Treaty is largely not a self-executing treaty. This means U.S. courts cannot apply the terms of the treaty to individual citizens and companies. For that to happen, the United States would need to enact national legislation that explains how the terms of the treaty apply to nongovernmental entities.
One article of the Outer Space Treaty says that participating countries should make sure that all of their citizens’ space activities comply with the treaty’s terms. Another article then gives these nations the authority to enact laws governing their citizens’ and companies’ private space activities.
This is particularly relevant to the U.S., where commercial activity in space is rapidly increasing.
UN Charter
It is important to note that the Outer Space Treaty requires participating nations to comply with international law and the United Nations Charter.
In the U.N. Charter, there are two international law concepts that are relevant to property rights. One is a country’s right to defend itself, and the other is the noninterference principle.
The international law principle of noninterference gives nations the right to exclude others from their space objects and the areas where they have ongoing activity.
But how will nations apply this concept to their private citizens and companies? Do individual people and companies have the right to exclude others in order to prevent interference with their activities? What can they do if a foreign person interferes or causes damage?
The noninterference principle in the U.N. Charter governs relations between nations, not individuals. Consequently, U.S. courts likely wouldn’t enforce the noninterference principle in a case involving two private parties.
So, U.S. citizens and companies do not have the right to exclude others from their space objects and areas of ongoing activity unless the U.S. enacts legislation giving them that right.
US laws and regulations
The United States has recognized the need for more specific laws to govern private space activities. It has sought international support for this effort through the nonbinding Artemis Accords.
As of January 2025, 50 nations have signed the Artemis Accords.
The accords explain how important components of the Outer Space Treaty will apply to private space activities. One section of the accords allows for safety zones, where public and private personnel, equipment and operations are protected from harmful interference by other people. The rights to self-defense and noninterference from the U.N. Charter provide a legal basis for safety zones.
Aside from satellite and rocket-launch regulations, the United States has enacted only a few laws – including the Commercial Space Launch Competitiveness Act of 2015 – to govern private activities in outer space and on celestial bodies.
As part of this act, any U.S. citizen collecting mineral resources in outer space or on celestial bodies has a right to own, transport, use and sell those resources. This act is an example of national legislation that clarifies how the Outer Space Treaty applies to U.S. citizens and companies.
Property rights
Enacting property rights for outer space would make it clear what rights and obligations property owners have and the extent of their authority over their property.
All nations on Earth have a form of property rights in their legal systems. Property rights typically include the rights to possess, control, develop, exclude, enjoy, sell, lease and mortgage properties. Enacting real property rights in space would create a marketplace for buying, selling, renting and mortgaging property.
Because the Outer Space Treaty prohibits territorial claims, space property rights would not necessarily be “land grabs.” Property rights would operate a little differently in space than on Earth.
Property rights in space would have to be based on the authority that the Outer Space Treaty gives to nations. This authority allows them to govern their citizens and their assets by enacting laws and enforcing them in their courts.
Space property rights would include safety zones around property to prevent interference. So, people would have to get the property owner’s permission before entering a safety zone.
If a U.S. property owner were to sell a space property to a foreign citizen or company, the space objects on the property would have to stay on the property or be replaced with the purchaser’s space objects. That would ensure that the owner’s country still has authority over the property.
Also, if someone transferred their space objects to a foreign citizen or company, the buyer would have to change their objects’ international registration, which would give the buyer’s nation authority over the space objects and the surrounding property.
Nations could likely avoid some territorial disputes if they enact real property laws in space that clearly describe how national authority over property changes when it is sold. Enacting property rights could reduce the legal risks for commercial space companies and support the permanent settlement of outer space and celestial bodies.
U.S. property rights law could also contain a reciprocity provision, which would encourage other nations to pass similar laws and allow participating countries to mutually recognize each other’s property rights.
With a reciprocity provision, property rights could support economic development as commercial companies around the world begin to look to outer space as the next big area of economic growth.
Wayne N White Jr, Adjunct Professor of Aviation and Space Law, Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University
This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.
The Knowledge
Metrolink Offers Fare-Free Rides for Earth Day 2026 Across Southern California
Metrolink offers fare-free rides for Earth Day 2026 across Southern California, encouraging sustainable travel and reduced emissions.
Last Updated on April 21, 2026 by Daily News Staff
Metrolink Offers Fare-Free Rides for Earth Day 2026
LOS ANGELES — April 22, 2026 — In a continued push toward sustainable transportation, Metrolink will once again offer systemwide free rides on Earth Day, inviting commuters and travelers to leave their cars behind and explore a cleaner way to move across the region.
A One-Day Opportunity to Ride Free
On Wednesday, April 22, passengers can board any Metrolink train — including the Arrow service — without purchasing a ticket. The initiative is part of the broader celebration of Earth Day, encouraging environmentally conscious travel choices.
The fare-free program is designed to appeal to both regular riders and first-time users, particularly those navigating Southern California’s persistent traffic congestion and rising fuel costs.
Encouraging Sustainable Travel Habits
“Earth Day is a reminder that small changes, like choosing public transit over driving one day a week, can have a meaningful impact on our environment,” said Doug Chaffee, chair of the Metrolink Board.
With gas prices continuing to strain household budgets, the agency hopes the initiative will inspire more residents to consider rail as part of their regular commute.
Regional Connections Expand Access
Metrolink’s Earth Day promotion aligns with similar efforts by other Southern California transit providers. Riders can seamlessly connect to services operated by: LA Metro and the Orange County Transportation Authority, Riverside County Transportation Commission, San Bernardino County Transportation Authority and Ventura County Transportation Commission.
These partnerships extend the reach of fare-free travel across a six-county region, making it easier for riders to explore destinations without relying on personal vehicles.
Service Adjustments and Rider Tips
Passengers should note that trains will operate on a reduced weekday schedule, implemented earlier this spring. Despite the adjustment, all Metrolink lines and station cities remain in service.
For those planning a trip:
- No ticket is required — simply board the train
- Bikes are welcome, with capacity ranging from three bikes per standard car to nine in designated bike cars
- A curated destination guide highlights attractions within walking or biking distance of stations
Environmental and Economic Impact
Metrolink is also promoting its Personal Impact Calculator, a digital tool that allows riders to estimate how switching from driving to rail can reduce greenhouse gas emissions and lower fuel expenses.
A Broader Trend in Public Transit
Fare-free transit days have gained traction nationwide as agencies look to boost ridership and promote sustainability. Southern California’s expansive commuter rail network makes it particularly well-suited for such initiatives, offering a viable alternative to one of the country’s most car-dependent regions.
Bottom Line
Metrolink’s Earth Day promotion is more than a one-day free ride — it’s a strategic effort to shift commuter behavior, reduce environmental impact, and showcase the convenience of regional rail. For Southern Californians, April 22 presents a low-risk opportunity to rethink how they travel.
Source: Metrolink
https://metrolinktrains.com/news/metrolink-goes-fare-free-for-earth-day-on-april-22
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Money Management: The Importance of Financial Literacy
You may have mastered the core subjects like math and grammar in school, but financial literacy – or understanding the basics of money management in order to help you make better financial decisions – often goes overlooked before adulthood. It’s not so much a course of study as it is a plan of action. When you understand how to earn, save, spend and invest wisely, you aren’t just building a stable future for yourself, but your family and community as well.
(Feature Impact) You may have mastered the core subjects like math and grammar in school, but financial literacy – or understanding the basics of money management in order to help you make better financial decisions – often goes overlooked before adulthood. It’s not so much a course of study as it is a plan of action.
Financial literacy in the United States has remained stagnant at generally low levels for several years, according to research from TIAA Institute and the Global Financial Literacy Excellence Center, with even lower levels among Gen Z. Yet greater financial literacy – including key aspects such as goal-setting, budgeting, saving, credit management and investing – is strongly linked to better financial outcomes, including lower rates of debt constraint and financial fragility.
While emboldening yourself to understand financial terms can be a little overwhelming at first, once you have a grasp of basic concepts you can begin to get a handle on your money and make better financial decisions. Simply put: When you understand how to earn, save, spend and invest wisely, you aren’t just building a stable future for yourself, but your family and community as well.
From nonprofit partnerships to volunteer-led programs and fee online resources, Schwab and its employees help millions of people every year build the knowledge and confidence to take charge of their financial futures by serving as board members, mentors, role models and educators.
Because financial health is a lifelong journey, the earlier people learn vital money skills, the better. That’s why the financial advisory services provider develops education programs geared toward kids that continue into adulthood, helping people no matter where they are on their journeys.
Talk Money
It’s never too early to start a conversation about financial literacy. Having teens identify goals that are important to them – such as concert tickets or a first car – can kickstart coversations about money. Working with your child (and a financial advisor, if necessary) on a plan for saving to realize those goals can serve as a jumping off point. After achieving some success, their enthusiasm may grow, which is a powerful motivator to keep saving.
Support School Initiatives and Programs
Outreach programs that empower young people to make smart financial decisions is key to a bright future. Programs like Money Matters – Schwab’s flagship financial education program utilized by the Boys & Girls Clubs of America – gives young people hands-on experience with all aspects of money and investing.
This example, and others, don’t just include program funding – they build partnerships that create impact and opportunity with national collaborations that reach more than 17 million youth annually, empowering young people with the tools and confidence to make smart financial decisions for life.
Spread the Financial Love
Championing financial literacy empowers everyone – individuals, families and communities. By serving as a board member, mentor, role model or educator to help bring financial literacy to others in your community, you can supply the tools and knowledge to lead programs that focus on giving back, empowering future generations in countless ways.
To learn more about financial literacy and find resources to empower your local community, visit SchwabMoneywise.com.
Photo courtesy of Shutterstock
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SUVs and EVs Take Center Stage at the 2026 New York International Auto Show
(Feature Impact) The 2026 New York International Auto Show is shining a spotlight on the latest in automotive innovation, from advanced technology to the growing shift toward electric vehicles. One automaker, Kia, is using the show to highlight two versatile SUVs designed to offer more space, capability and flexibility for modern drivers.
Watch this video to learn more
The all-new 2027 Kia Seltos has grown in size, offering a roomier interior with additional legroom, headroom and cargo space. It also adds a hybrid powertrain, making it the only vehicle in its class with three powertrain options. The SUV comes packed with advanced safety features, a more capable all-wheel-drive system and premium interior touches, including dual 12.3-inch display screens and an available panoramic sunroof.
The automaker is also showcasing the all-electric EV3, a compact SUV designed to make electric vehicle ownership more practical. With an estimated range of up to 320 miles, fast-charging capability and optional all-wheel drive, it balances performance, technology and everyday usability. Its intuitive features and flexible design make transitioning to electric simpler for a wider range of drivers.
Both models represent Kia’s commitment to providing options that blend capability, innovation and style. To learn more, visit Kia.com.
SOURCE:
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