Karly Sarita Ford, Penn State

When the Supreme Court struck down race-based admissions at American colleges and universities just over a year ago, many predicted U.S. campuses would become much less diverse. But in part due to students who decide not to disclose their race or ethnicity, coupled with universities’ selective use of statistics, it is not clear how much the decision has affected diversity on campus.

As higher education institutions begin reporting the racial makeup of the class of 2028 – the first to be affected by the 2023 decision – the data is hard to interpret, confusing and inconclusive.

As a sociologist who has studied how institutions of higher education collect and report data on race and ethnicity, I have identified some factors that contribute to this lack of clarity.

Students don’t identify with choices given

Some students may not select a racial or ethnic category because they don’t believe any of the categories really fit. For example, before multiracial students could select “one or more,” an option that became widely available in 2010, they were more likely to decline to identify their race or ethnicity. Some even boycotted checkboxes entirely.

Other students don’t view their race as important: 67% of the students who choose “race and ethnicity unknown” are white. Of these students, 33% say race and ethnicity are not a relevant part of their identity, a researcher found in 2008.

The number of students who don’t respond to questions about race or ethnicity – and are listed in the “race unknown” category – is increasing. At Harvard University, for example, the percentage of “race-unknown” undergrad students doubled from 2023 to 2024.

As the number of “race unknown” students grows, it not only becomes harder to determine a student body’s ethnic and racial diversity but also the impact of the ban on race-conscious admissions.

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Fearing discrimination, students don’t disclose race

Some students believe their race or ethnicity will harm their chances of admission.

This is particularly true at many selective institutions, which have higher nonresponse rates than less selective institutions, about 4% compared with 1% to 2%.

My research shows that students are even more likely to pass on identifying race or ethnicity at selective law schools, where race and ethnicity could be used among a variety of criteria for admissions before the Supreme Court ruled against that practice. An average of 8% of students at those schools chose not to identify, compared with 4% at less selective law schools.

‘We’re very diverse’: University decisions distort statistics

What a university chooses to report will also affect the student body demographic data the public sees. Harvard, for example, does not report its proportion of white students.

Some institutions use statistics strategically to appear more diverse than they are. These strategies include counting multiracial students multiple times – once for each race selected – or including international students as a separate category in demographic pie charts. The greater the number of different-colored slices on the chart, the more demographically “diverse” an institution appears to be.

Impact of Supreme Court ruling: Clearer picture coming soon

While universities may not all report their student demographics the same way in their own materials, they all have to report it the same way to the federal government – namely, to its Integrated Post Secondary Education Data System, better known as IPEDS. The next IPEDS report on characteristics for the 2024 enrollment class is expected to be released in spring 2025. Once that data is available, a better picture of how the Supreme Court’s decision has affected diversity in college enrollment should emerge.

That clearer picture might not last long. In 2027, the federal government will require colleges and universities to make changes to how they report student race and ethnicity. Among the changes is the addition of a Middle Eastern and North African category. Under the current standard, Middle Eastern and North African students are counted as white. As a result, white enrollment at some colleges and universities will appear to decline after 2027.

The new standards will also change the way universities treat Hispanic or Latino ethnicity on enrollment forms. Today, if students self-identify as Hispanic and white, they will be categorized as Hispanic. If students select Hispanic and white in 2027, they will be categorized as multiracial. The revised categories will muddy the impact of the Supreme Court’s decision. A drop in the number of Hispanic students reported could be due to the court’s ruling. Or it may result from the new way students will be counted.

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Until universities and colleges adjust to the new guidelines about collecting and reporting race – and as long as students decline to provide their racial identities – the full effect of banning consideration of race in college admissions will remain a cloudy picture at best.

Karly Sarita Ford, Associate Professor of Education and Sociology, Penn State

This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.

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Boost Your Wellbeing with These Easy Tips

Living a healthy lifestyle is important for our physical and mental well-being, but sometimes it can be overwhelming to know where to start. However, there are simple changes that we can make to our daily routines that can have a big impact on our health and wellness. Here are 10 simple changes you can make today to improve your health and wellness.

1. Drink more water: Staying hydrated is key for our body’s systems to function properly. Aim for at least 8 glasses of water a day.
2. Add more fruits and vegetables to your diet: Fruits and vegetables are packed with nutrients and antioxidants that can help protect against diseases. Aim for at least 5 servings a day.
3. Move more: Regular exercise is important for maintaining a healthy weight, reducing stress, and improving overall health. Find activities that you enjoy and aim for at least 30 minutes of physical activity a day.
4. Get enough sleep: Sleep is essential for our body to heal and regenerate. Aim for 7-9 hours of sleep each night.
5. Reduce stress: Chronic stress can have negative effects on our physical and mental health. Find activities that help you relax and reduce stress, like meditation or yoga.
6. Practice good hygiene: Good hygiene practices like washing your hands regularly and showering daily can help prevent the spread of germs and illnesses.
7. Limit alcohol intake: Drinking too much alcohol can have negative effects on our liver and overall health. Limit your intake to no more than 1-2 drinks per day.
8. Quit smoking: Smoking is a major cause of many diseases and can have negative effects on our health. Quitting smoking is one of the best things you can do for your health.
9. Wear sunscreen: Protect your skin from the harmful effects of the sun by wearing sunscreen with at least SPF 30, especially when spending time outdoors.
10. Connect with others: Social connections are important for our mental health and well-being. Make an effort to spend time with friends and family, or find a community group that interests you.

Making these simple changes to your daily routines can have a big impact on your health and wellness. Remember that small steps can lead to big changes. Start with one or two changes and gradually add more as you feel comfortable. With time, these habits will become a natural part of your daily routine, helping you to live a healthier and happier life.

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Jim Franklin, Western Governors University School of Business

Although coverage of the 2024 election was dominated by the economy, taxes didn’t get much attention in the run-up to the vote. That’s a bit of a surprise, since 2025 will be a major year for America’s tax system – in fact, the fate of the most significant tax reform in three decades hangs in the balance.

That would be the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act, which Congress passed during President-elect Donald Trump’s first term in office in 2017. If lawmakers don’t take action, the whole package is set to expire at the end of next year. Western Governors University School of Business tax expert Jim Franklin explains what might be in store for the act, and for taxpayers.

What do the election results mean for Republicans’ ability to advance their tax agenda?

We know there will be a Republican president, and it appears the Republican Party will have the majority in both chambers of Congress. That means Republicans will be able to pass a tax bill along party lines, similar to how Democrats passed the Inflation Reduction Act using budget reconciliation.

This would allow Republicans to pass key policies with a simple majority. The Republican majority is narrow, so it will be interesting to see how the leaders unify their constituent groups.

Republicans have traditionally supported lower tax rates for businesses and individuals, as well as tax incentives to help boost economic activity.

What’s next for the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act?

Currently, the act is set to expire at the end of 2025, but Trump and Republicans favor renewing many of its provisions.

The nonpartisan Congressional Budget Office in May 2024 estimated that extending the act would cost the government US$4.6 trillion, and there’s a split within the party, with one bloc of congressional Republicans calling for a full extension and another asking for the balancing of tax policy and annual federal deficits.

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Republicans are likely to fight to keep key components in place, including the higher standard deduction, reduced corporate tax rates, individual rate cuts and an increased estate tax exemption.

There’s even talk of lowering the corporate tax rate further, possibly to 15% for domestic production, which would be a significant move.

What other tax measures are Republicans considering?

Trump mentioned a variety of tax relief ideas on the campaign trail, including exempting tips, Social Security benefits and overtime pay from income taxes, and creating an itemized deduction for auto loan interest.

However, Republicans aren’t entirely unified on tax policy. Some deficit hawks are concerned about revenue losses, so there could be internal pushback on all these points. The real question is whether there will be enough opposition within the party to alter or block certain proposals.

But I expect many parts of the act to be renewed, and we may see some additions. For example, there’s been a lot of pressure around increasing the state and local tax deduction cap, also known as SALT, which has bipartisan support in states with higher state income taxes like New York, California and Illinois. It will be interesting to see if that gains any traction. There’s a lot of pressure among representatives, both Republicans and Democrats, to gain some relief in that area.

Where will they find revenue?

Good question. Observers are indicating that Republicans are likely to look at cutting green energy subsidies from the 2022 Inflation Reduction Act. These could be eliminated to help balance out the cost of their new tax proposals.

Another area to watch is tariffs. There’s talk of raising tariffs on Chinese goods — potentially up to 60% — and even imposing a universal tariff on all U.S. imports at a 20% rate. It will be interesting to see how this plays out. Will it be more targeted? For example, will there be continued tariffs on select imports such as automotive imports from China to protect the U.S. electric vehicle market?

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What will you be watching between now and Tax Day?

One factor will be Trump’s cabinet appointments. Whoever he nominates for Treasury secretary, for instance, could have a big influence. They can help shape what the tax bill looks like. Another key factor will be who ends up on the congressional tax committees. The composition of key committees will affect the direction of policy and the specific details.

What do you think will happen with tariffs?

Tariffs are unpredictable: They could be applied broadly, or more selectively. It could be similar to the way that Trump and his first administration placed some tariffs on steel, aluminum and solar panels. Interestingly, many of the tariffs were retained by the Biden administration.

Blanket tariffs could slow down the economy, so there is always a risk. Tariffs impact inflation because they affect the cost of imported goods, which would likely reduce consumers’ purchasing power. Domestic political pressure will play a role, as higher tariffs could raise prices on many goods that are imported, including essential products like medications.

Do you have advice for people struggling to keep up with the latest tax news?

Observers often take every policy suggestion on the campaign trail literally — exempting tips, Social Security benefits, overtime pay, etc. — as if all these proposals will pass exactly as stated. But the details matter, and policies are rarely implemented without adjustments. So it’s wise to read beyond the headlines.

Jim Franklin, Director of Academic Programs, Western Governors University School of Business

This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.

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