This image overlays over 100 fireball images recorded between 2016 and 2020. The streaks are fireballs; the dots are star positions at different times. Desert Fireball NetworkPatrick M. Shober, NASA Much of what scientists know about the early solar system comes from meteorites – ancient rocks that travel through space and survive a fiery plunge through Earth’s atmosphere. Among meteorites, one type – called carbonaceous chondrites – stands out as the most primitive and provides a unique glimpse into the solar system’s infancy. The carbonaceous chondrites are rich in water, carbon and organic compounds. They’re “hydrated,” which means they contain water bound within minerals in the rock. The components of the water are locked into crystal structures. Many researchers believe these ancient rocks played a crucial role in delivering water to early Earth. Before hitting the Earth, rocks traveling through space are generally referred to as asteroids, meteoroids or comets, depending on their size and composition. If a piece of one of these objects makes it all the way to Earth, it becomes a “meteorite.” From observing asteroids with telescopes, scientists know that most asteroids have water-rich, carbonaceous compositions. Models predict that most meteorites – over half – should also be carbonaceous. But less than 4% of all the meteorites found on Earth are carbonaceous. So why is there such a mismatch? In a study published in the journal Nature Astronomy on April 14, 2025, my planetary scientist colleagues and I tried to answer an age-old question: Where are all the carbonaceous chondrites?
Sample-return missions
Scientists’ desire to study these ancient rocks has driven recent sample-return space missions. NASA’s OSIRIS‑REx and JAXA’s Hayabusa2 missions have transformed what researchers know about primitive, carbon‑rich asteroids. Meteorites found sitting on the ground are exposed to rain, snow and plants, which can significantly change them and make analysis more difficult. So, the OSIRIS‑REx mission ventured to the asteroid Bennu to retrieve an unaltered sample. Retrieving this sample allowed scientists to examine the asteroid’s composition in detail. Similarly, Hayabusa2’s journey to the asteroid Ryugu provided pristine samples of another, similarly water-rich asteroid. Together these missions have let planetary scientists like me study pristine, fragile carbonaceous material from asteroids. These asteroids are a direct window into the building blocks of our solar system and the origins of life.Carbonaceous near-Earth asteroid Bennu as seen from NASA’s OSIRIS-REx sample-return spacecraft.NASA
The carbonaceous chondrite puzzle
For a long time, scientists assumed that the Earth’s atmosphere filtered out carbonaceous debris. When an object hits Earth’s atmosphere, it has to survive significant pressures and high temperatures. Carbonaceous chondrites tend to be weaker and more crumbly than other meteorites, so these objects just don’t stand as much of a chance. Meteorites usually start their journey when two asteroids collide. These collisions create a bunch of centimeter- to meter-size rock fragments. These cosmic crumbs streak through the solar system and can, eventually, fall to Earth. When they’re smaller than a meter, scientists call them meteoroids. Meteoroids are far too small for researchers to see with a telescope, unless they’re about to hit the Earth, and astronomers get lucky. But there is another way scientists can study this population, and, in turn, understand why meteorites have such different compositions.
Meteor and fireball observation networks
Our research team used the Earth’s atmosphere as our detector. Most of the meteoroids that reach Earth are tiny, sand-sized particles, but occasionally, bodies up to a couple of meters in diameter hit. Researchers estimate that about 5,000 metric tons of micrometeorites land on Earth annually. And, each year, between 4,000 and 10,000 large meteorites – golf ball-sized or larger – land on Earth. That’s more than 20 each day.A fireball observed by the FRIPON network in Normandy, France, in 2019. Today, digital cameras have rendered round-the-clock observations of the night sky both practical and affordable. Low-cost, high-sensitivity sensors and automated detection software allow researchers to monitor large sections of the night sky for bright flashes, which signal a meteoroid hitting the atmosphere. Research teams can sift through these real-time observations using automated analysis techniques – or a very dedicated Ph.D. student – to find invaluable information. Our team manages two global systems: FRIPON, a French-led network with stations in 15 countries; and the Global Fireball Observatory, a collaboration started by the team behind the Desert Fireball Network in Australia. Together with other open-access datasets, my colleagues and I used the trajectories of nearly 8,000 impacts observed by 19 observation networks spread across 39 countries.FRIPON camera installed at the Pic du Midi Observatory in the French Pyrenees.FRIPON By comparing all meteoroid impacts recorded in Earth’s atmosphere with those that successfully reach the surface as meteorites, we can pinpoint which asteroids produce fragments that are strong enough to survive the journey. Or, conversely, we can also pinpoint which asteroids produce weak material that do not show up as often on Earth as meteorites.Desert Fireball Network automated remote observatory in South Australia.The Desert Fireball Network
The Sun is baking the rocks too much
Surprisingly, we found that many asteroid pieces don’t even make it to Earth. Something starts removing the weak stuff while the fragment is still in space. The carbonaceous material, which isn’t very durable, likely gets broken down through heat stress when its orbit takes it close to the Sun. As carbonaceous chondrites orbit close, and then away from the Sun, the temperature swings form cracks in their material. This process effectively fragments and removes weak, hydrated boulders from the population of objects near the Earth. Anything left over after this thermal cracking then has to survive the atmosphere. Only 30%-50% of the remaining objects survive the atmospheric passage and become meteorites. The debris pieces whose orbits bring them closer to the Sun tend to be significantly more durable, making them far more likely to survive the difficult passage through Earth’s atmosphere. We call this a survival bias. For decades, scientists have presumed that Earth’s atmosphere alone explains the scarcity of carbonaceous meteorites, but our work indicates that much of the removal occurs beforehand in space. Going forward, new scientific advances can help confirm these findings and better identify meteoroid compositions. Scientists need to get better at using telescopes to detect objects right before they hit the Earth. More detailed modeling of how these objects break up in the atmosphere can also help researchers study them. Lastly, future studies can come up with better methods to identify what these fireballs are made of using the colors of the meteors. Patrick M. Shober, Postdoctoral Fellow in Planetary Sciences, NASA This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.
Why can’t I wiggle my toes one at a time, like my fingers?
why can’t I wiggle my toes? Ever wondered why you can’t wiggle your toes one at a time like your fingers? Learn how evolution, muscles, and your brain all play a part in making fingers more independent than toes—and why that’s key for walking and balance.
Why can’t I wiggle my toes individually, like I can with my fingers? – Vincent, age 15, Arlington, Virginia
One of my favorite activities is going to the zoo where I live in Knoxville when it first opens and the animals are most active. On one recent weekend, I headed to the chimpanzees first. Their breakfast was still scattered around their enclosure for them to find. Ripley, one of the male chimpanzees, quickly gathered up some fruits and vegetables, sometimes using his feet almost like hands. After he ate, he used his feet to grab the fire hoses hanging around the enclosure and even held pieces of straw and other toys in his toes. I found myself feeling a bit envious. Why can’t people use our feet like this, quickly and easily grasping things with our toes just as easily as we do with our fingers? I’m a biological anthropologist who studies the biomechanics of the modern human foot and ankle, using mechanical principles of movement to understand how forces affect the shape of our bodies and how humans have changed over time. Your muscles, brain and how human feet evolved all play a part in why you can’t wiggle individual toes one by one.Chimpanzee hands and feet do similar jobs.Manoj Shah/Stone via Getty Images
Comparing humans to a close relative
Humans are primates, which means we belong to the same group of animals that includes apes like Riley the chimp. In fact, chimpanzees are our closest genetic relatives, sharing almost 98.8% of our DNA. Evolution is part of the answer to why chimpanzees have such dexterous toes while ours seem much more clumsy. Our very ancient ancestors probably moved around the way chimpanzees do, using both their arms and legs. But over time our lineage started walking on two legs. Human feet needed to change to help us stay balanced and to support our bodies as we walk upright. It became less important for our toes to move individually than to keep us from toppling over as we moved through the world in this new way.Feet adapted so we could walk and balance on just two legs.Karina Mansfield/Moment via Getty Images Human hands became more important for things such as using tools, one of the hallmark skills of human beings. Over time, our fingers became better at moving on their own. People use their hands to do lots of things, such as drawing, texting or playing a musical instrument. Even typing this article is possible only because my fingers can make small, careful and controlled movements. People’s feet and hands evolved for different purposes.
Muscles that move your fingers or toes
Evolution brought these differences about by physically adapting our muscles, bones and tendons to better support walking and balance. Hands and feet have similar anatomy; both have five fingers or toes that are moved by muscles and tendons. The human foot contains 29 muscles that all work to help you walk and stay balanced when you stand. In comparison, a hand has 34 muscles. Most of the muscles of your foot let you point your toes down, like when you stand on tiptoes, or lift them up, like when you walk on your heels. These muscles also help feet roll slightly inward or outward, which lets you keep your balance on uneven ground. All these movements work together to help you walk and run safely. The big toe on each foot is special because it helps push your body forward when you walk and has extra muscles just for its movement. The other four toes don’t have their own separate muscles. A few main muscles in the bottom of your foot and in your calf move all four toes at once. Because they share muscles, those toes can wiggle, but not very independently like your fingers can. The calf muscles also have long tendons that reach into the foot; they’re better at keeping you steady and helping you walk than at making tiny, precise movements.Your hand is capable of delicate movements thanks to the muscles and ligaments that control its bones.Henry Gray, ‘Anatomy of the Human Body’/Wikimedia Commons, CC BY In contrast, six main muscle groups help move each finger. The fingers share these muscles, which sit mostly in the forearm and connect to the fingers by tendons. The thumb and pinky have extra muscles that let you grip and hold objects more easily. All of these muscles are specialized to allow careful, controlled movements, such as writing. So, yes, I have more muscles dedicated to moving my fingers, but that is not the only reason I can’t wiggle my toes one by one.
Divvying up brain power
You also need to look inside your brain to understand why toes and fingers work differently. Part of your brain called the motor cortex tells your body how to move. It’s made of cells called neurons that act like tiny messengers, sending signals to the rest of your body. Your motor cortex devotes many more neurons to controlling your fingers than your toes, so it can send much more detailed instructions to your fingers. Because of the way your motor cortex is organized, it takes more “brain power,” meaning more signals and more activity, to move your fingers than your toes.The motor cortex of your brain sends orders to move parts of your body.Kateryna Kon/Science Photo Library via Getty Images Even though you can’t grab things with your feet like Ripley the chimp can, you can understand why.Hello, curious kids! Do you have a question you’d like an expert to answer? Ask an adult to send your question to CuriousKidsUS@theconversation.com. Please tell us your name, age and the city where you live.And since curiosity has no age limit – adults, let us know what you’re wondering, too. We won’t be able to answer every question, but we will do our best.Steven Lautzenheiser, Assistant Professor of Biological Anthropology, University of Tennessee This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.
Why do people get headaches? – Evie V., age 10, Corpus Christi, Texas
Whether sharp and stabbing or dull and throbbing, a headache can ruin your day. But your brain doesn’t actually feel pain. So what is going on when it feels like your head is in a vise or about to explode? I am a child neurologist – that is, a doctor who specializes in diseases of the brain in kids. Most of my patients are kids and adolescents who are struggling with headaches. Head pain is complicated, and there is still a lot to learn about what causes it and how it can be treated. But researchers know there are a few key players that take part in generating pain.
What are headaches?
Nerves communicate information like pain through electrical signals between the body and the brain. While the brain itself doesn’t have any nerve sensors to feel pain, blood vessels in the head and structures that protect and surround the brain do sense pain. When these tissues detect injury or damage, they release chemicals that trigger transmission of electrical signals through nerves to tell the brain the head is hurting. The brain will also use nerves to signal the body to respond to pain with symptoms like feeling tired, teary eyes, runny nose, upset stomach and discomfort in bright or loud environments. It’s not clear why humans evolved to feel these symptoms, but some scientists theorize that this can lead to healthier lifestyle choices to decrease the chance of future headache attacks.Weather changes are one of the most commonly reported migraine triggers. Danielle Wilhour, a neurologist and headache specialist at University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, explains why shifts in weather can bring on migraines — and what you can do to ease the pain.
What causes headaches?
Often, headaches are a sign that the body is under some kind of stress. That stress triggers chemical and physical changes to the nerves and blood vessels around your brain, head and neck that can cause headaches. Many types of stresses can cause headaches, including an infection, allergies, hormone changes during puberty and menstrual cycles, not getting enough sleep, not drinking enough water, skipping meals or drinking too much caffeine or alcohol. Sometimes, headaches happen with emotional stress, like feeling anxious or depressed. Even pressure in your sinuses due to changes in the weather can cause your head to hurt. One in 11 kids have had a type of severe headache called a migraine. They feel like a pulsing and pounding pain in your head and come with other symptoms, including nausea or being sensitive to lights and sounds. During a migraine, it can be hard to do everyday activities because they can make the pain worse. It is also very common to feel unwell or irritable before the head pain starts and after the pain is gone.Migraines and chronic headaches can be debilitating.Viktoriya Skorikova/Moment via Getty Images Migraines occur when the nerves and other structures used in signaling and interpreting pain aren’t working properly, leading to pain and discomfort from stimulation that wouldn’t normally provoke this. There are many environmental and genetic factors that contribute to this dysfunction. Some people are born with a higher risk of developing migraines. Most people with migraines have someone in their family who also experiences them.
What can treat and prevent headaches?
Identifying what type of headache you’re experiencing is crucial to making sure it is treated properly. Because migraines can be severe, they’re the type of headache that most often leads to doctor’s visits for both kids and adults. There are several ways to reduce your chances of having headaches, such as drinking plenty of water and limiting caffeine. Eating, sleeping and exercising regularly are other ways you can help prevent headaches.Sleep deprivation can worsen headaches.DjelicS/iStock via Getty Images Plus While painkillers like ibuprofen are often enough to relieve a headache, prescription medications are sometimes necessary to make head pain more bearable. Some medications can also help control or prevent headache episodes. Physical therapy to exercise the body or behavioral therapy to work on the mind can also help you manage headache pain. There are even electronic devices to treat headaches by stimulating different parts of the nervous system. It is important to talk with a doctor about headaches, especially if it’s a new problem or you experience a change in how they usually feel. Sometimes, brain imaging or blood tests are needed to rule out another health issue. Recognizing a headache problem early will help your doctor get started on helping you figure out the best way to treat it.Hello, curious kids! Do you have a question you’d like an expert to answer? Ask an adult to send your question to CuriousKidsUS@theconversation.com. Please tell us your name, age and the city where you live.And since curiosity has no age limit – adults, let us know what you’re wondering, too. We won’t be able to answer every question, but we will do our best.Katherine Cobb-Pitstick, Assistant Professor of Child Neurology, University of Pittsburgh This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.
Fact Check: Did Mike Rogers Admit the Travis Walton UFO Case Was a Hoax?
A fact check of viral claims that Mike Rogers admitted the Travis Walton UFO case was a hoax. We examine the evidence, the spotlight theory, and what the record actually shows.
In recent years, viral YouTube videos and podcast commentary have revived claims that the 1975 Travis Walton UFO abduction case was an admitted hoax. One of the most widely repeated allegations asserts that Mike Rogers, the logging crew’s foreman, supposedly confessed that he and Walton staged the entire event using a spotlight from a ranger tower to fool their coworkers.
So, is there any truth to this claim?
After reviewing decades of interviews, skeptical investigations, and public records, the answer is clear:
There is no verified evidence that Mike Rogers ever admitted the Travis Walton incident was a hoax.
Where the Viral Claim Comes From
The “confession” story has circulated for years in online forums and was recently amplified by commentary-style YouTube and podcast content, including popular personality-driven shows. These versions often claim:
Rogers and Walton planned the incident in advance
A spotlight from a ranger or observation tower simulated the UFO
The rest of the crew was unaware of the hoax
Rogers later “admitted” this publicly
However, none of these claims are supported by primary documentation.
What the Documented Record Shows
No Recorded Confession Exists
There is no audio, video, affidavit, court record, or signed statement in which Mike Rogers admits staging the incident.
Rogers has repeatedly denied hoax allegations in interviews spanning decades.
Even prominent skeptical organizations do not cite any confession by Rogers.
If such an admission existed, it would be widely referenced in skeptical literature and would have effectively closed the case. It has not.
The “Ranger Tower Spotlight” Theory Lacks Evidence
No confirmed ranger tower or spotlight installation matching the claim has been documented at the location.
No ranger, third party, or equipment operator has ever come forward.
No physical evidence or corroborating testimony supports this explanation.
Even professional skeptics typically label this idea as speculative, not factual.
Why Skepticism Still Exists (Legitimately)
While the viral claim lacks evidence, skepticism about the Walton case is not unfounded. Common, well-documented critiques include:
Financial pressure tied to a logging contract
The limitations and inconsistency of polygraph testing
Walton’s later use of hypnosis, which is controversial in memory recall
Possible cultural influence from 1970s UFO media
Importantly, none of these critiques rely on a confession by Mike Rogers, because none exists.
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Updates & Current Status of the Case
As of today:
No new witnesses have come forward to confirm a hoax
No participant has recanted their core testimony
No physical evidence has conclusively proven or disproven the event
Walton and Rogers have both continued to deny hoax allegations
The case remains unresolved, not debunked.
Why Viral Misinformation Persists
Online commentary formats often compress nuance into dramatic statements. Over time:
Speculation becomes repeated as “fact”
Hypothetical explanations are presented as admissions
Entertainment content is mistaken for investigative reporting
This is especially common with long-standing mysteries like the Walton case, where ambiguity invites exaggeration.
Viral Claims vs. Verified Facts
Viral Claim:
Mike Rogers admitted he and Travis Walton staged the UFO incident.
Verified Fact:
No documented confession exists. Rogers has consistently denied hoax claims.
Viral Claim:
A ranger tower spotlight was used to fake the UFO.
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Verified Fact:
No evidence confirms a tower, spotlight, or third-party involvement.
Viral Claim:
The case was “officially debunked.”
Verified Fact:
No authoritative body has conclusively debunked or confirmed the incident.
Viral Claim:
All skeptics agree it was a hoax.
Verified Fact:
Even skeptical researchers acknowledge the absence of definitive proof.
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Viral Claim:
Hollywood exposed the truth in Fire in the Sky.
Verified Fact:
The film significantly fictionalized Walton’s testimony for dramatic effect.
Bottom Line
❌ There is no verified admission by Mike Rogers
❌ There is no evidence of a ranger tower spotlight hoax
✅ There are legitimate unanswered questions about the case
✅ The incident remains debated, not solved
The Travis Walton story persists not because it has been proven — but because it has never been conclusively explained.
Dive into “The Knowledge,” where curiosity meets clarity. This playlist, in collaboration with STMDailyNews.com, is designed for viewers who value historical accuracy and insightful learning. Our short videos, ranging from 30 seconds to a minute and a half, make complex subjects easy to grasp in no time. Covering everything from historical events to contemporary processes and entertainment, “The Knowledge” bridges the past with the present. In a world where information is abundant yet often misused, our series aims to guide you through the noise, preserving vital knowledge and truths that shape our lives today. Perfect for curious minds eager to discover the ‘why’ and ‘how’ of everything around us. Subscribe and join in as we explore the facts that matter. https://stmdailynews.com/the-knowledge/
Rod: A creative force, blending words, images, and flavors. Blogger, writer, filmmaker, and photographer. Cooking enthusiast with a sci-fi vision. Passionate about his upcoming series and dedicated to TNC Network. Partnered with Rebecca Washington for a shared journey of love and art. View all posts
